Chapter Notes

AGRICULTURE

India is a country where agriculture is incredibly important. About two-thirds of the population depends on agricultural activities for their livelihood. Agriculture is a primary activity, meaning it involves directly using natural resources. It not only produces the food we eat but also provides raw materials for many industries.

Beyond our own country's needs, India also exports agricultural products like tea, coffee, and spices to other parts of the world.

Types of Farming

Agriculture in India is an ancient practice. Over thousands of years, the methods of cultivation have evolved based on the physical environment, the technology available, and the social and cultural practices of different communities. Farming can range from subsistence farming, where farmers grow enough just for their family, to commercial farming, where crops are grown to be sold in the market.

Primitive Subsistence Farming

This is one of the oldest forms of farming and is still practiced in a few areas of India.

• Method: It is done on small patches of land using basic, primitive tools like a hoe, dao (a type of blade), and digging sticks.
• Labor: The work is done by the farmer's family or the local community.
• Dependence: This type of farming relies entirely on the monsoon for water, the natural fertility of the soil, and other suitable environmental conditions. Productivity is low because farmers do not use fertilizers or other modern inputs.

A key feature of this method is that it's a 'slash and burn' agriculture. Farmers clear a piece of land by cutting down vegetation and burning it. The ash adds nutrients to the soil, and they grow cereals and other food crops for their family. When the soil loses its fertility after a few years, they abandon that patch of land and clear a new one. This shifting allows the old land to naturally regain its fertility over time.

This farming method has different names across India and the world:

• Jhumming: In north-eastern states like Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland.
• Pamlou: In Manipur.
• Dipa: In the Bastar district of Chhattisgarh and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• Bewar or Dahiya: In Madhya Pradesh.
• Podu or Penda: In Andhra Pradesh.
• Kumari: In the Western Ghats.
• Kuruwa: In Jharkhand.

Intensive Subsistence Farming

This type of farming is found in areas with high population density, where there is a lot of pressure on the land to produce food.

• Characteristics: It is a labour-intensive farming method. To get the highest possible yield from a small plot of land, farmers use high doses of biochemical inputs (like fertilizers) and extensive irrigation.
• The Problem of Land Size: A major issue in these areas is the 'right of inheritance'. Land is passed down and divided among children over generations. This leads to very small, uneconomical land holdings. Because there are often no alternative sources of livelihood, farmers are forced to get the maximum output from their limited land, putting enormous pressure on it.

Commercial Farming

The primary goal of commercial farming is to produce crops for sale in the market.

• Characteristics: This method involves using high doses of modern inputs to achieve high productivity. This includes high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilizers, insecticides, and pesticides.
• Regional Variation: The level of commercialization can differ from place to place. [!example] Rice is a commercial crop in Punjab and Haryana, grown mainly for sale. However, in Odisha, rice is primarily a subsistence crop, grown for the family's own consumption.

Plantation is a specific type of commercial farming where a single crop is grown over a very large area.

• Features: Plantations are a mix of agriculture and industry. They require large areas of land, significant capital investment (capital-intensive), and often rely on migrant laborers.
• Purpose: The entire produce from a plantation is used as raw material in related industries. For instance, tea leaves from a tea plantation go to a tea processing factory.
• Key Crops in India: Important plantation crops include tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane, and banana.
• Infrastructure: A well-developed network of transport and communication is vital for plantations to connect the farming areas with processing industries and markets.

Cropping Pattern

India's diverse physical environment and cultures are reflected in its agricultural practices and the types of crops grown. The country has three distinct cropping seasons.

Rabi

• Sowing Season: Sown in winter, from October to December.
• Harvesting Season: Harvested in summer, from April to June.
• Important Crops: Wheat, barley, peas, gram, and mustard.
• Key Regions: Primarily grown in northern and north-western states like Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, and Uttar Pradesh.
• Favorable Factors: The success of rabi crops in these regions is helped by winter precipitation from western temperate cyclones and the impact of the Green Revolution.

Kharif

• Sowing Season: Grown with the arrival of the monsoon in different parts of the country.
• Harvesting Season: Harvested in September-October.
• Important Crops: Paddy (rice), maize, jowar, bajra, tur (arhar), moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut, and soyabean.
• Key Rice Regions: Assam, West Bengal, coastal areas of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra (Konkan coast), Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar.
• Special Case: In states like Assam, West Bengal, and Odisha, farmers can grow three crops of paddy in a single year, known as Aus, Aman, and Boro.

Zaid

There is a short cropping season between the Rabi and Kharif seasons, during the summer months. This is known as the Zaid season.

• Important Crops: Crops grown during this season include watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, vegetables, and fodder crops.

Major Crops

India grows a wide variety of food and non-food crops, depending on the soil, climate, and farming practices in different regions.

Rice

• Significance: It is the staple food crop for a majority of people in India. India is the second-largest producer of rice in the world, after China.
• Season: It is a kharif crop.
• Growing Conditions:
  • Temperature: Requires high temperature (above 25°C).
  • Rainfall: Needs high humidity with annual rainfall above 100 cm. In areas with less rain, it is grown with the help of irrigation.
• Major Growing Areas: Plains of north and north-eastern India, coastal areas, and deltaic regions. With well-developed canal irrigation and tubewells, rice is now also grown in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, and parts of Rajasthan.

Wheat

• Significance: This is the second most important cereal crop in India and the main food crop in the northern and north-western parts of the country.
• Season: It is a rabi crop.
• Growing Conditions:
  • Temperature: Requires a cool growing season and bright sunshine at the time of ripening.
  • Rainfall: Needs 50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall, evenly distributed over the growing season.
• Major Growing Zones: The Ganga-Satluj plains in the north-west and the black soil region of the Deccan. Key states include Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, and Rajasthan.

Millets

These are coarse grains but have very high nutritional value. The important millets grown in India are jowar, bajra, and ragi.

• Ragi: Very rich in iron, calcium, other micro-nutrients, and roughage. It grows well in dry regions on red, black, sandy, and loamy soils. Major producers are Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
• Jowar: The third most important food crop in India. It is a rain-fed crop that hardly needs irrigation. Major producers are Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh.
• Bajra: Grows well on sandy and shallow black soils. Major producers are Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Haryana.

Maize

• Use: It is used as both food and fodder.
• Season: It is a kharif crop, though in states like Bihar, it is also grown in the rabi season.
• Growing Conditions: Requires a temperature between 21°C and 27°C and grows well in old alluvial soil.
• Production Boost: The use of modern inputs like HYV seeds, fertilizers, and irrigation has increased maize production.
• Major Producing States: Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana.

Pulses

• Significance: India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the world. They are a major source of protein in a vegetarian diet.
• Major Pulses: Tur (arhar), urad, moong, masur, peas, and gram.
• Growing Conditions: Pulses need less moisture and can survive in dry conditions.
• Role in Agriculture: Being leguminous crops, they help restore soil fertility by fixing nitrogen from the air (all except arhar). Therefore, they are often grown in rotation with other crops.
• Major Producing States: Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, and Karnataka.

Food Crops other than Grains

Sugarcane

• Crop Type: It is both a tropical and a subtropical crop.
• Growing Conditions: Grows well in a hot and humid climate with a temperature of 21°C to 27°C and annual rainfall between 75 cm and 100 cm. It requires manual labor from sowing to harvesting.
• Significance: India is the second-largest producer after Brazil. It is the main source of sugar, gur (jaggery), khandsari, and molasses.
• Major Producing States: Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, Punjab, and Haryana.

Oil Seeds

India is a major producer of oil seeds, which cover about 12% of the country's total cropped area.

• Major Oil Seeds: Groundnut, mustard, coconut, sesamum (til), soyabean, castor seeds, cotton seeds, linseed, and sunflower.
• Uses: Most are edible and used as cooking oils. Some are also used as raw material for making soap, cosmetics, and ointments.
• Groundnut: A kharif crop that accounts for about half of the major oilseeds produced. In 2019-20, Gujarat was the largest producer.
• Linseed and Mustard: These are rabi crops.

Tea

• Farming Type: An example of plantation agriculture. It is an important beverage crop.
• Growing Conditions:
  • Climate: Grows well in tropical and sub-tropical climates. It requires a warm, moist, and frost-free climate throughout the year.
  • Soil: Needs deep, fertile, well-drained soil rich in humus and organic matter.
  • Rainfall: Frequent, evenly distributed showers are needed for the continuous growth of tender leaves.
• Labor: Tea is a labor-intensive industry requiring abundant, cheap, and skilled labor.
• Significance: In 2020, India was the second-largest producer of tea after China.
• Major Producing States: Assam, the hills of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts (West Bengal), Tamil Nadu, and Kerala.

Coffee

• Quality: Indian coffee is known worldwide for its good quality. The Arabica variety, originally from Yemen, is grown in India and is in great demand.
• Major Producing Regions: Cultivation is mainly confined to the Nilgiri hills in Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. It was first introduced on the Baba Budan Hills.

Horticulture Crops

Horticulture refers to the cultivation of fruits and vegetables. In 2020, India was the second-largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world, after China.

• Fruits: India grows both tropical and temperate fruits. Famous examples include mangoes from Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh, oranges from Nagpur, bananas from Kerala and Tamil Nadu, grapes from Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra, and apples, pears, and apricots from Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.
• Vegetables: India is an important producer of pea, cauliflower, onion, cabbage, tomato, brinjal, and potato.

Non-Food Crops

Rubber

• Crop Type: An equatorial crop, but can be grown in tropical and sub-tropical areas under special conditions.
• Growing Conditions: Requires a moist and humid climate with rainfall of more than 200 cm and a temperature above 25°C.
• Significance: It is an important industrial raw material.
• Major Producing Regions: Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and the Garo hills of Meghalaya.

Fibre Crops

The four major fibre crops in India are cotton, jute, hemp, and natural silk. The first three are grown in the soil, while silk is obtained from the cocoons of silkworms. The rearing of silkworms for silk production is called sericulture.

Cotton

• Significance: India is believed to be the original home of the cotton plant. It is a key raw material for the cotton textile industry. India is the second-largest producer of cotton after China.
• Season: It is a kharif crop that takes 6 to 8 months to mature.
• Growing Conditions:
  • Soil: Grows well in the drier parts of the black cotton soil of the Deccan plateau.
  • Climate: Requires high temperature, light rainfall or irrigation, 210 frost-free days, and bright sunshine.
• Major Producing States: Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh.

Jute

• Nickname: Known as the golden fibre.
• Growing Conditions: Grows well on well-drained, fertile soils in floodplains where the soil is renewed every year. It requires high temperature during its growth.
• Uses: Used to make gunny bags, mats, ropes, yarn, and carpets.
• Major Producing States: West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha, and Meghalaya.

Technological and Institutional Reforms

For thousands of years, Indian agriculture has been practiced, but without matching technological and institutional changes, its development has been slow. Many farmers still depend on the monsoon and natural soil fertility. For a growing population, this is a major challenge.

Post-Independence Reforms

After India became independent, the government prioritized institutional reforms to improve agriculture.

• Key Initiatives: Collectivisation (pooling of land), consolidation of holdings (combining fragmented plots), cooperation, and the abolition of zamindari (the landlord system).
• First Five Year Plan: Land reform was the main focus. Laws were made, but their implementation was often slow or incomplete.

The 1960s and 1970s

The government introduced major agricultural reforms during this period.

• The Green Revolution: This was based on "package technology," which included the use of HYV seeds, fertilizers, and irrigation to boost food grain production, especially wheat.
• The White Revolution (Operation Flood): This was a strategy to increase milk production.
• Drawback: These revolutions led to development being concentrated in only a few selected areas.

The 1980s and 1990s

A more comprehensive land development program was launched, which included both institutional and technical reforms.

• Institutional Reforms:
  • Provision for crop insurance against drought, flood, fire, etc.
  • Establishment of Grameen banks and cooperative societies to provide loans to farmers at lower interest rates.
  • Schemes like the Kisan Credit Card (KCC) and the Personal Accident Insurance Scheme (PAIS) were introduced.
• Technical and Informational Support:
  • Special weather bulletins and agricultural programs were broadcast on radio and television.
  • The government announced a minimum support price (MSP) for important crops to protect farmers from exploitation by middlemen.

Bhoodan - Gramdan

This movement, also known as the Blood-less Revolution, was a unique attempt at land reform initiated by Vinoba Bhave, whom Mahatma Gandhi had declared his spiritual heir.

After Gandhi's martyrdom, Vinoba Bhave traveled across the country on foot (padyatra) to spread Gandhi's message.

1. The Beginning: At a lecture in Pochampalli, Andhra Pradesh, some landless villagers demanded land.
2. The First Bhoodan: A landlord named Shri Ram Chandra Reddy stood up and offered 80 acres of his land to be distributed among 80 landless villagers. This act of donating land was called Bhoodan (land gift).
3. The Gramdan: As Vinoba Bhave continued his travels, some zamindars who owned many villages offered to distribute entire villages among the landless. This was known as Gramdan (village gift).

Many landowners also donated part of their land due to the fear of the government's land ceiling act, which would limit the amount of land an individual could own.