Chapter Notes

Resources and Development

Everything in our environment that can be used to satisfy our needs is called a 'Resource', but only if it meets three conditions:

• It must be technologically accessible (we have the technology to get it).
• It must be economically feasible (it's affordable to obtain).
• It must be culturally acceptable (society agrees with its use).

The process of turning things from the environment into usable resources is an interactive process. Humans interact with nature using technology and create institutions (like governments or companies) to speed up economic development.

Resources are not free gifts of nature; they are a result of human activities. Humans themselves are a key part of resources because we have the skills and knowledge to transform materials from our environment into valuable things we can use.

Classification of Resources

Resources can be classified in several ways:

• On the basis of origin:
  • Biotic: Obtained from the biosphere and have life, such as human beings, plants, and animals.
  • Abiotic: Composed of non-living things, such as rocks and minerals.
• On the basis of exhaustibility:
  • Renewable: Resources that can be renewed or reproduced by physical, chemical, or mechanical processes, like solar and wind energy, water, and forests.
  • Non-renewable: Resources that take millions of years to form. Once they are used up, they are gone forever. Examples include minerals and fossil fuels like coal and oil.
• On the basis of ownership:
  • Individual: Owned privately by individuals, such as a house or a farm.
  • Community: Accessible to all members of a community, like village ponds, public parks, or grazing grounds.
  • National: Resources within the political boundaries of a country, including minerals, water resources, forests, and wildlife.
  • International: Resources that don't belong to any single country, like the open ocean. These are regulated by international institutions.
• On the basis of the status of development:
  • Potential: Resources found in a region but not yet utilized. For example, Rajasthan and Gujarat have great potential for wind and solar energy, but it hasn't been fully developed yet.
  • Developed: Resources that have been surveyed, their quality and quantity determined, and are currently being used.
  • Stock: Materials in the environment that have the potential to satisfy human needs, but we don't have the right technology to access them yet.
  • Reserves: A subset of stock that we can access with existing technology, but we have saved them for future needs.

Development of Resources

Resources are essential for human survival and for maintaining a good quality of life. However, for a long time, people believed resources were free gifts of nature and used them without careful thought. This indiscriminate use has led to major problems:

• Depletion of resources: Some individuals' greed has led to the overuse and depletion of resources like forests and fossil fuels.
• Accumulation of resources in a few hands: This has divided society into the 'haves' and 'have-nots', or the rich and the poor.
• Global ecological crises: Over-exploitation of resources has caused worldwide problems like global warming, ozone layer depletion, environmental pollution, and land degradation.

Sustainable development

To address these problems, the concept of sustainable development is essential. Sustainable economic development means that 'development should take place without damaging the environment, and development in the present should not compromise with the needs of the future generations.'

Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992

In June 1992, more than 100 heads of state met in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, for the first International Earth Summit. The purpose was to address urgent problems of environmental protection and socio-economic development on a global scale. At the summit, leaders signed the Declaration on Global Climatic Change and Biological Diversity and adopted Agenda 21.

Agenda 21

Agenda 21 is a declaration signed by world leaders at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED). Its main goal is to achieve global sustainable development. It is an action plan to combat environmental damage, poverty, and disease through global cooperation. A key objective is that every local government should create its own local Agenda 21.

Resource Planning

Planning is the best strategy for the wise use of resources. This is especially important in a country like India, which has a huge diversity in the availability of resources.

• Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Madhya Pradesh have rich mineral and coal deposits.
• Arunachal Pradesh has abundant water but lacks infrastructure.
• Rajasthan has plenty of solar and wind energy but lacks water.
• Ladakh has a rich cultural heritage but is deficient in water, infrastructure, and some vital minerals.

This imbalance shows why balanced resource planning is needed at national, state, regional, and local levels.

Resource Planning in India

Resource planning is a complex process that involves three main stages:

1. Identification and inventory of resources: This involves surveying, mapping, and measuring the quality and quantity of resources across the country.
2. Evolving a planning structure: This means creating a plan with the right technology, skills, and institutional setup to implement resource development.
3. Matching resource development plans with national development plans: Ensuring that the plans for using resources align with the overall development goals of the country.

India began making efforts towards resource planning right from its First Five Year Plan after Independence.

However, just having resources is not enough for development. A region might be rich in resources but economically backward if it lacks technology and institutions. On the other hand, a region with poor resources can be economically developed if it has good technology and human resources. The history of colonisation shows that foreign invaders were attracted to colonies because of their rich resources. The colonising countries used their superior technology to exploit these resources and establish control.

Conservation of Resources

Irrational consumption and over-use of resources can lead to serious socio-economic and environmental problems. Therefore, resource conservation is very important.

Mahatma Gandhi was very clear about this when he said, "There is enough for everybody's need and not for any body's greed." He believed that greedy individuals and the exploitative nature of modern technology were the root causes of resource depletion.

Key international efforts in resource conservation include:

• 1968: The Club of Rome advocated for resource conservation in a systematic way for the first time.
• 1974: Schumacher presented Gandhian philosophy in his book Small is Beautiful.
• 1987: The Brundtland Commission Report introduced the concept of 'Sustainable Development' and advocated for it as a means of resource conservation. This was later published in the book Our Common Future.

Land Resources

Land is a crucial natural resource. We live on it, perform our economic activities on it, and it supports natural vegetation, wildlife, and human life. However, land is a finite asset, so we must use it with careful planning.

In India, land is divided into different relief features:

• Plains: About 43% of the land area is plain, providing facilities for agriculture and industry.
• Mountains: About 30% of the area is mountainous, ensuring the flow of some rivers and providing opportunities for tourism.
• Plateaus: About 27% of the area is the plateau region, which contains rich reserves of minerals, fossil fuels, and forests.

Land Utilisation

Land resources in India are used for the following purposes:

• Forests
• Land not available for cultivation (barren land, land used for buildings, roads, etc.)
• Other uncultivated land (pastures, tree crops, culturable waste land left uncultivated for more than 5 years)
• Fallow lands (land left without cultivation for a period to regain fertility)
• Net Sown Area (NSA): The physical area where crops are sown and harvested.

Gross Cropped Area is the Net Sown Area plus the area that is sown more than once in an agricultural year.

Land Use Pattern in India

Land use is determined by physical factors like topography and climate, as well as human factors like population density and technology.

India's total geographical area is 3.28 million sq km, but land use data is only available for 93% of this area. This is because reporting has not been fully done for some north-eastern states and some areas of Jammu and Kashmir occupied by Pakistan and China have not been surveyed.

Key trends in India's land use include:

• The land under permanent pasture has decreased, putting pressure on feeding our large cattle population.
• The forest area in the country is far lower than the desired 33% outlined in the National Forest Policy (1952), which is essential for maintaining ecological balance.

Continuous use of land over a long time without proper conservation has resulted in land degradation.

Land Degradation and Conservation Measures

Human activities have not only caused land degradation but have also accelerated natural forces that damage land.

Causes of Land Degradation:

• Mining: In states like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, and Odisha, mining has caused severe land degradation. Abandoned mines leave deep scars.
• Overgrazing: This is a main reason for land degradation in states like Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra.
• Over-irrigation: In Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh, over-irrigation leads to waterlogging, which increases salinity and alkalinity in the soil.
• Mineral Processing: Industries like cement (grinding limestone) and ceramic (grinding soapstone) generate huge amounts of dust, which settles on land and prevents water from seeping into the soil.
• Industrial Effluents: Waste from industries has become a major source of land and water pollution.

Conservation Measures:

• Afforestation and proper management of grazing.
• Planting shelter belts of plants to control wind.
• Stabilisation of sand dunes by growing thorny bushes in arid areas.
• Proper management of waste lands.
• Control of mining activities.
• Proper discharge and disposal of industrial wastes after treatment.

Soil as a Resource

Soil is the most important renewable natural resource. It is the medium for plant growth and supports countless living organisms. It takes millions of years for just a few centimeters of soil to form.

Factors in soil formation include relief, parent rock, climate, vegetation, other life forms, and time.

Classification of Soils

India has various types of soils due to its diverse relief features, landforms, and climatic realms.

Alluvial Soils

• Location: This is the most widespread and important soil in India. The entire northern plains are made of alluvial soil deposited by the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra rivers. It is also found in the eastern coastal plains.
• Characteristics: Consists of sand, silt, and clay. Based on age, it is classified into:
  • Bangar (Old Alluvial): Has a higher concentration of kanker nodules.
  • Khadar (New Alluvial): Has more fine particles and is more fertile than bangar.
• Crops: Alluvial soils are very fertile and contain adequate potash, phosphoric acid, and lime. They are ideal for growing sugarcane, paddy, wheat, and other cereal and pulse crops.

Black Soil

• Location: Typical of the Deccan trap (Basalt) region, covering the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh.
• Characteristics: Also known as regur soils. They are made of extremely fine clayey material and are well-known for their capacity to hold moisture. They are rich in calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash, and lime, but poor in phosphoric content. They develop deep cracks in hot weather, which helps with aeration.
• Crops: Ideal for growing cotton, which is why it's also called black cotton soil.

Red and Yellow Soils

• Location: Develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and southern parts of the Deccan plateau. Also found in parts of Odisha and Chhattisgarh.
• Characteristics: Develops a reddish color due to the diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks. It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.

Laterite Soil

• Location: Found in southern states, the Western Ghats region of Maharashtra, Odisha, some parts of West Bengal, and North-east regions.
• Characteristics: The name comes from the Latin word 'later', meaning brick. It develops in tropical and subtropical climates with alternate wet and dry seasons. It is the result of intense leaching from heavy rain. The soil is acidic (pH < 6.0) and generally deficient in plant nutrients.
• Crops: With proper conservation techniques, this soil is very useful for growing tea and coffee in Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. Red laterite soils are also suitable for crops like cashew nuts.

Arid Soils

• Location: Western Rajasthan.
• Characteristics: Range from red to brown in color. They are sandy in texture and saline in nature. Due to the dry climate and high temperatures, the soil lacks humus and moisture. The lower layers are occupied by Kankar (calcium carbonate), which restricts water infiltration.
• Crops: After proper irrigation, these soils become cultivable.

Forest Soils

• Location: Found in hilly and mountainous areas where sufficient rain forests are available.
• Characteristics: The texture varies depending on the mountain environment. They are loamy and silty in valley sides and coarse-grained on the upper slopes. In snow-covered areas of the Himalayas, they are acidic with low humus content. The soils in the lower parts of valleys, especially on river terraces, are fertile.

Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation

The denudation (wearing away) of the soil cover and its subsequent washing down is described as soil erosion. Soil formation and erosion happen simultaneously, and there is usually a balance. However, this balance can be disturbed by human activities like deforestation, over-grazing, construction, and mining, or by natural forces like wind and water.

Types of Erosion:

• Gully Erosion: Running water cuts through clayey soils, making deep channels called gullies. This makes the land unfit for cultivation, known as bad land. In the Chambal basin, such lands are called ravines.
• Sheet Erosion: Sometimes water flows as a sheet over a large area down a slope, washing away the topsoil.
• Wind Erosion: Wind blows loose soil off flat or sloping land.

Methods of Soil Conservation:

• Contour Ploughing: Ploughing along the contour lines of a slope can slow down the flow of water.
• Terrace Cultivation: Cutting steps (terraces) on slopes restricts erosion. This is well-developed in the western and central Himalayas.
• Strip Cropping: Large fields are divided into strips. Strips of grass are left to grow between the crops, which breaks the force of the wind.
• Shelter Belts: Planting lines of trees to create shelter also helps. These rows of trees have significantly helped in stabilizing sand dunes in western India.