The Making of a Global WorldClass 10 History NCERT Solutions
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Q6Discuss
Imagine that you are an indentured Indian labourer in the Caribbean. Drawing from the details in this chapter, write a letter to your family describing your life and feelings.
Solution
Dearest Mother,
I hope this letter finds you and the family in good health. It has been many months since I left our village, and my heart aches for home. The agent who came to our village promised a better life, a way to escape our debts and poverty. He spoke of a land of opportunity, but the reality here in Trinidad is very different.
The journey across the sea was long and terrifying, and we were packed like animals. Now, on the plantation, the work is harder than anything I have ever known. From sunrise to sunset, we toil in the fields under the harsh sun. The conditions are brutal, and our living quarters are no better than sheds. We have few legal rights, and the masters can punish us for the smallest of reasons. This is not freedom; it feels like a new system of slavery.
Many of us were tempted by false information about this place, the nature of the work, and the living conditions. We miss our food, our festivals, and our way of life. There is a deep sense of loss and loneliness among us. Yet, we have found our own ways to survive. We share stories, sing songs from our villages, and have even created new traditions. During Muharram, we have a procession we call 'Hosay', and workers of all faiths join in. It is in these moments that we find a small sense of community and strength.
I do not know when I will be able to return. The five years of the contract feel like a lifetime. Please take care of yourselves. I think of you all every day and pray for the strength to endure.
Your loving son,
[Name]
Q7Discuss
Explain the three types of movements or flows within international economic exchange. Find one example of each type of flow which involved India and Indians, and write a short account of it.
Solution
Economists identify three types of movements or 'flows' within international economic exchanges, which were particularly prominent in the nineteenth-century world economy. These are:
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The flow of trade: This refers to the exchange of goods between countries. In the nineteenth century, this was largely trade in goods like cloth or wheat.
- Example involving India: A key example is the trade relationship between India and Britain. Historically, India exported fine cotton textiles to Europe. However, with British industrialisation, Britain began exporting machine-made cloth to India. Tariffs were imposed on Indian textiles entering Britain, while the Indian market was flooded with British manufactures. Simultaneously, India became a major exporter of raw materials like raw cotton, indigo, and opium to Britain and China.
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The flow of labour: This refers to the migration of people in search of employment.
- Example involving India: A significant example is the migration of indentured Indian labourers in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Hundreds of thousands of Indians from regions like eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar were hired under contracts to work on plantations in the Caribbean, Mauritius, Fiji, and Malaya. They were escaping poverty and oppression at home but faced harsh, slave-like conditions abroad. This migration led to the formation of large Indian diaspora communities in these countries.
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The flow of capital: This refers to the movement of capital for short-term or long-term investments over long distances.
- Example involving India: An important example is the role of Indian bankers and traders, such as the Shikaripuri shroffs and Nattukottai Chettiars. They were among the many groups who financed export agriculture in Central and Southeast Asia. Using their own funds or money borrowed from European banks, they developed sophisticated systems to transfer money over large distances and played a crucial role in the colonial economy, often following European colonisers into Africa and other regions.
Q8Discuss
Explain the causes of the Great Depression.
Solution
The Great Depression, which began around 1929, was caused by a combination of several interconnected factors that made the post-war world economy extremely fragile. The main causes were:
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Agricultural Overproduction and Falling Prices: After World War I, agricultural production remained high, particularly in countries like Canada, America, and Australia. This created a glut in the market, causing agricultural prices to fall sharply. As their incomes declined, farmers tried to expand production to sell more, which only worsened the situation, pushing prices down further and leading to widespread rural debt.
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Withdrawal of US Loans: In the mid-1920s, many countries had become dependent on loans from the US for investment and recovery. However, in 1928, US overseas lenders grew cautious and drastically cut the amount of loans. This sudden withdrawal of capital created an acute crisis in Europe and Latin America, leading to the failure of major banks and the collapse of currencies.
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US Protectionism and Collapse of World Trade: The US attempt to protect its own economy by doubling import duties dealt a severe blow to international trade. This protectionist policy made it harder for other countries to sell their goods in the US, further deepening the global crisis.
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Stock Market Crash and Banking Collapse in the US: The Wall Street Crash of 1929 triggered a panic that led US banks to slash domestic lending and call back loans. Faced with falling incomes, businesses collapsed and households defaulted on their debts. This led to the collapse of the US banking system itself, with thousands of banks going bankrupt. The resulting fall in consumer demand and investment plunged the US, and consequently the world, into a deep depression.
Q9Discuss
Explain what is referred to as the G-77 countries. In what ways can G-77 be seen as a reaction to the activities of the Bretton Woods twins?
Solution
The G-77, or the Group of 77, is a coalition of developing nations established to promote its members' collective economic interests and create an enhanced joint negotiating capacity in the United Nations.
The formation of the G-77 can be seen as a direct reaction to the activities and inherent biases of the Bretton Woods institutions—the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank.
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Focus on Industrial Nations: The Bretton Woods institutions were primarily designed to meet the financial needs of the industrial countries, focusing on post-war reconstruction and monetary stability in the Western world. They were not equipped to address the specific challenges of poverty, lack of resources, and underdevelopment faced by the newly independent former colonies in Asia and Africa.
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Unequal Benefits of Growth: The developing countries did not benefit from the fast economic growth that the Western economies experienced in the 1950s and 1960s under the Bretton Woods system. The system seemed to perpetuate an economic order where former colonial powers continued to control vital resources and markets.
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Demand for a New Economic Order: In response to this inequality, the developing countries organised themselves into the G-77 to demand a New International Economic Order (NIEO). The NIEO was a set of proposals aimed at creating a more equitable international economic system. Through the NIEO, the G-77 demanded:
- Real control over their natural resources.
- More development assistance.
- Fairer prices for the raw materials they exported.
- Better access for their manufactured goods in the markets of developed countries.
Therefore, the G-77 was a collective voice of the Global South reacting against an international economic structure, dominated by the Bretton Woods twins, which they felt favoured the developed world at their expense.
Q1Write in brief
Give two examples of different types of global exchanges which took place before the seventeenth century, choosing one example from Asia and one from the Americas.
Solution
Two examples of global exchanges before the seventeenth century are the Silk Routes and the Columbian Exchange.
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Example from Asia (The Silk Routes): The silk routes are a prime example of pre-modern trade and cultural links between distant parts of the world. For centuries, these routes, both over land and by sea, connected vast regions of Asia with Europe and northern Africa. West-bound Chinese silk cargoes travelled these routes, along with Chinese pottery, and textiles and spices from India. In return, precious metals like gold and silver flowed from Europe to Asia. These routes were also conduits for cultural exchange, facilitating the spread of ideas, religions like Buddhism and Christianity, and knowledge.
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Example from the Americas (The Columbian Exchange): After Christopher Columbus's discovery of the Americas, a significant exchange of food crops took place. Foods such as potatoes, soya, maize, tomatoes, chillies, and sweet potatoes were introduced from the Americas to Europe and Asia. These new crops transformed diets and agriculture across the world. The introduction of the potato, for example, allowed Europe's poor to eat better and live longer, demonstrating the profound impact of this exchange on livelihoods and demography.
Q2Write in brief
Explain how the global transfer of disease in the pre-modern world helped in the colonisation of the Americas.
Solution
The global transfer of disease was a crucial and devastating factor that aided the European colonisation of the Americas. The most powerful weapon of the Spanish conquerors was not a conventional military one, but the germs of diseases such as smallpox that they carried with them.
Because the American continent had been isolated from the rest of the world for millions of years, its original inhabitants had no immunity against diseases that were common in Europe. When the Europeans arrived, these diseases spread with catastrophic effect.
Smallpox, in particular, proved to be a deadly killer. It spread deep into the continent, often ahead of the Europeans themselves. It killed and decimated entire communities, wiping out large portions of the indigenous population. This biological warfare, though not necessarily intentional, severely weakened the native societies, making it far easier for the numerically inferior European forces to conquer and establish control over the vast continent. The natives' lack of immunity turned disease into a decisive tool of conquest.
Q3Write in brief
Write a note to explain the effects of the following: a) The British government's decision to abolish the Corn Laws. b) The coming of rinderpest to Africa. c) The death of men of working-age in Europe because of the World War. d) The Great Depression on the Indian economy. e) The decision of MNCs to relocate production to Asian countries.
Solution
a) The British government's decision to abolish the Corn Laws:
The abolition of the Corn Laws led to significant economic and social changes in Britain. Food could be imported more cheaply than it was produced within the country. This had two major effects. Firstly, British agriculture could not compete with cheap imports, leading to vast areas of land being left uncultivated and thousands of agricultural workers becoming unemployed. Many migrated to cities or overseas. Secondly, lower food prices led to increased consumption and higher living standards for the urban population, fuelling industrial growth.
b) The coming of rinderpest to Africa:
The arrival of the cattle plague, rinderpest, in Africa in the 1890s had a terrifying impact. It killed about 90 per cent of the cattle, which destroyed the livelihoods of Africans who were dependent on livestock. This loss of wealth forced them into the wage labour market, something they had previously resisted. European colonisers were able to monopolise the scarce remaining cattle resources, which strengthened their power and helped them to conquer and subdue the African population.
c) The death of men of working-age in Europe because of the World War:
The First World War caused the death of about 9 million people, most of whom were men of working age. This drastically reduced the able-bodied workforce in Europe. Consequently, household incomes declined after the war. It also led to a significant social change, as women stepped in to undertake jobs that were earlier considered exclusively for men, altering the traditional gender roles in society.
d) The Great Depression on the Indian economy:
The Great Depression had a severe impact on India. As an exporter of agricultural goods, India's trade was immediately affected, with exports and imports nearly halving between 1928 and 1934. The crash in international prices caused agricultural prices in India to plummet. Peasants and farmers were the worst hit, as their incomes fell sharply while the colonial government refused to lower revenue demands, pushing them deeper into debt. In contrast, urban dwellers with fixed incomes, like salaried employees, found themselves better off as the cost of living decreased.
e) The decision of MNCs to relocate production to Asian countries:
Starting from the late 1970s, Multinational Corporations (MNCs) began relocating production to low-wage Asian countries like China. This was primarily to reduce manufacturing costs and remain competitive in world markets. This shift stimulated world trade and capital flows and transformed the global economic geography. It led to rapid economic transformation in countries like China, India, and Brazil. For consumers in developed nations, it meant access to cheaper goods like televisions, mobile phones, and toys.
Q4Write in brief
Give two examples from history to show the impact of technology on food availability.
Solution
Technology has played a critical role in transforming food availability throughout history. Two key examples are the development of railways and refrigerated ships in the nineteenth century.
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Railways and Steamships: The invention of the railways and steamships was crucial in creating a global agricultural economy. These technologies made it possible to transport food more cheaply and quickly over vast distances. For example, food grains produced in America, Russia, and Australia could now be efficiently transported to ports via railways and then shipped to industrial centres in Britain to feed the growing urban population. Without this transport technology, linking faraway farms to final markets would not have been possible on such a large scale.
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Refrigerated Ships: The invention of refrigerated ships in the late 1870s revolutionised the meat trade and significantly improved food availability for the European poor. Before this, live animals were shipped from America to Europe, a costly and inefficient process. Refrigeration allowed animals to be slaughtered at their source in America, Australia, or New Zealand, and then transported as frozen meat. This drastically reduced shipping costs and lowered meat prices in Europe. As a result, meat, once an expensive luxury, became a more common part of the diet for many working-class families, improving their nutrition and living conditions.
Q5Write in brief
What is meant by the Bretton Woods Agreement?
Solution
The Bretton Woods Agreement refers to the international economic system established at the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference held in July 1944 at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, USA. The main goal of this system was to ensure economic stability and full employment in the post-World War II industrial world, drawing lessons from the economic instability of the inter-war period.
The agreement led to the establishment of two key institutions:
- The International Monetary Fund (IMF): To deal with external surpluses and deficits of its member nations.
- The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (the World Bank): To finance post-war reconstruction.
This framework, often called the Bretton Woods system, was based on fixed exchange rates. National currencies were pegged to the US dollar, which was itself anchored to gold at a fixed price of $35 per ounce. This system presided over an era of unprecedented economic growth for Western industrial nations and Japan.