Chapter Notes

Arts of the Indus Valley

The arts of the Indus Valley Civilisation emerged in the second half of the third millennium BCE. This ancient civilisation, with its major cities of Harappa in the north and Mohenjodaro in the south, left behind a rich legacy of artistic expression. The artists of this era possessed fine sensibilities and a vivid imagination, creating highly realistic depictions of humans and animals.

The civilisation was also known for its remarkable civic planning. Cities were arranged in a grid-like pattern with houses, markets, storage facilities, and public baths. They also had a highly developed drainage system. While Harappa and Mohenjodaro are in modern-day Pakistan, important sites have also been excavated in India, including Lothal and Dholavira in Gujarat, Rakhigarhi in Haryana, Ropar in Punjab, and Kalibangan in Rajasthan.

The art forms found across these sites include:

• Sculptures (stone, bronze, terracotta)
• Seals
• Pottery
• Jewellery

Stone Statues

While not found in large numbers, the stone statues from Harappan sites are very refined and show an excellent handling of three-dimensional form. Two of the most famous examples were found at Harappa and Mohenjodaro.

• Male Torso: A figure of a male torso made from red sandstone. It features socket holes in the neck and shoulders, suggesting that the head and arms were attached separately. The figure has a frontal posture, well-defined shoulders, and a slightly prominent abdomen.
• Bust of a Bearded Man (Priest-King): This famous bust, made of soapstone, is interpreted as the figure of a priest.
  • Clothing: He is draped in a shawl that passes under his right arm and covers his left shoulder, decorated with a trefoil pattern (a three-leaf clover design).
  • Facial Features: The eyes are elongated and half-closed, suggesting a state of meditative concentration. The nose is well-formed, and the mouth is of average size with a short beard and moustache.
  • Details: The ears look like double shells with a hole in the middle. His hair is parted in the middle and held back by a plain woven fillet (headband). He wears an armlet on his right arm, and holes around his neck suggest he once wore a necklace.

Bronze Casting

The Harappans were masters of bronze casting, a skill they practiced on a wide scale. They used the ‘lost wax’ technique, a sophisticated method that is still in use today in many parts of India.

The Lost Wax Technique:

1. A figure is first created from wax.
2. This wax figure is coated with clay and left to dry, forming a mould.
3. The clay mould is heated, causing the wax to melt and drain out through a small hole.
4. This leaves a hollow, empty mould in the shape of the original figure.
5. Molten metal (bronze) is poured into the hollow mould.
6. Once the metal cools and solidifies, the clay cover is broken away to reveal the finished statue.

Key Bronze Figures:

• The ‘Dancing Girl’: Found in Mohenjodaro, this four-inch-high copper figure is one of the most famous Indus Valley artefacts. She has long hair tied in a bun, large eyes, and a flat nose. Her left arm is covered in bangles, while her right arm has a bracelet and an amulet. She stands in a confident pose with her right hand on her hip, full of expression and bodily vigour.
• Bronze Bull: Also from Mohenjodaro, this figure captures the massiveness and fury of a bull. It is shown with its head turned to the right and a cord around its neck.
• Other Figures: Excellent examples of bronze casting have been found at other sites, such as the copper dog and bird from Lothal and the bronze bull from Kalibangan.

Terracotta

The Indus Valley people also created many figures from terracotta (baked clay). However, the terracotta representations of human forms are generally considered crude compared to their stone and bronze counterparts. The figures found in Gujarat sites and Kalibangan are noted to be more realistic.

• Mother Goddess: The most common terracotta figures are those of the mother goddess. These are typically crude, standing female figures with prominent breasts, adorned with necklaces, and wearing a loincloth and girdle. A distinctive feature is the fan-shaped headdress. Their faces are simplistic, with pellet eyes, a beaked nose, and a simple slit for a mouth.
• Bearded Males: Figurines of bearded males with coiled hair have also been found. They are shown in a rigid, upright posture. The repetition of this figure suggests it may represent a deity.
• Toys and Other Objects: Terracotta was also used to make everyday items and toys, including toy carts with wheels, whistles, rattles, birds and animals, and gamesmen.

Seals

Archaeologists have discovered thousands of seals, which provide valuable insight into the life and culture of the Indus Valley people.

• Materials: Most seals were made of steatite (a type of soft stone), but some were also made from agate, chert, copper, faience, and terracotta. A few ivory seals have also been found.
• Shape and Size: The standard Harappan seal was a square plaque, about 2x2 square inches.
• Purpose: The primary purpose of the seals was likely commercial, perhaps used to stamp goods for trade. They may have also been used as amulets or even as a form of identity card.
• Engravings: Each seal is engraved with a pictographic script (which has not yet been deciphered) and images of animals. The realistic rendering of animals like the unicorn bull, rhinoceros, tiger, elephant, and buffalo is remarkable.

• The Pashupati Seal: This is the most famous seal. It depicts a central human figure seated cross-legged, surrounded by animals: an elephant and a tiger on the right, and a rhinoceros and a buffalo on the left. Two antelopes are shown below the seat. Scholars debate whether the figure represents a male deity (Pashupati, a proto-Shiva) or a female deity.

Pottery

A large quantity of pottery has been excavated, showing a gradual evolution of designs and styles. Most pottery was very fine and made on a potter's wheel.

• Plain Pottery: This was more common than painted pottery. It was generally made of red clay, sometimes with a fine red or grey slip (a thin coating of clay). Knobbed ware, which was ornamented with rows of knobs, is one type of plain pottery.
• Painted Ware: This pottery has a fine coating of red slip, with geometric and animal designs painted on it in glossy black paint.
• Perforated Pottery: This type of pottery has a large hole at the bottom and small holes all over its walls. It was probably used for straining beverages.
• Miniature Vessels: Some tiny vessels, less than half an inch high, were so marvellously crafted that they evoke admiration.

Beads and Ornaments

The people of the Indus Valley were fashion-conscious and decorated themselves with a wide variety of ornaments.

• Materials: Ornaments were made from a range of materials, from precious metals (gold) and gemstones (carnelian, amethyst, lapis lazuli) to more common materials like bone, shell, and baked clay.
• Types of Ornaments:
  • Worn by both sexes: Necklaces, fillets, armlets, and finger-rings.
  • Worn by women: Girdles, earrings, and anklets.
• Bead Industry: The bead industry was well-developed, with factories discovered at Chanhudaro and Lothal. Beads were made in various shapes (disc-shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped) and showed great technical skill in their creation, with some being decorated by painting or etching.
• Textiles: The discovery of numerous spindles and spindle whorls indicates that the spinning of cotton and wool was very common. People wore two separate pieces of clothing, similar to a dhoti and a shawl.
• Cosmetics: Archaeological finds suggest an awareness of fashion. Different hairstyles were popular, and beards were common. Cinnabar was used as a cosmetic, and face paint, lipstick, and collyrium (eyeliner) were also known.