Chapter Notes

Indian Bronze Sculpture

Indian sculptors mastered the art of creating sculptures from bronze, a skill as refined as their work with terracotta and stone. The primary technique used was the cire-perdu or 'lost-wax' process, which dates back to the Indus Valley Culture.

• What is Bronze? Bronze is an alloy, meaning it is a metal made by mixing other metals. Specifically, it is a combination of copper, zinc, and tin.
• Uses of Bronze: While many bronze sculptures of Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain icons were created for ritual worship between the second and sixteenth centuries, the metal-casting process was also used for everyday items like utensils. Present-day tribal communities continue to use the 'lost-wax' process in their art.

Early Bronze Sculptures

• 'Dancing Girl' from Mohenjodaro: Believed to be the earliest bronze sculpture, dating to 2500 BCE. The figure's limbs and torso are simplified into a tubular form.
• Daimabad Bronzes: A group of bronze statuettes from Daimabad (Maharashtra), dating to 1500 BCE, show a similar style. A notable piece is the 'Chariot', which features a long, stretched-out driver, sturdy bulls, and simple circular wheels.

Jain Bronzes

• Kushana Period (Chausa, Bihar): Discovered in Chausa, Bihar, these bronzes from the second century CE show the sculptors' skill in modeling the masculine human body and simplifying muscles.
  • A remarkable example is the depiction of Adinath or Vrishabhnath, who is uniquely identified by his long hairlocks falling to his shoulders. Other tirthankaras are typically shown with short, curly hair.
• Akota Hoard (Gujarat): A famous collection of Jain bronzes was found at Akota, near Baroda. These were created between the end of the fifth and the end of the seventh century CE.
  • These finely cast bronzes were often inlaid with silver and copper to detail the eyes, crowns, and textiles.
  • The discovery at Akota confirmed that bronze casting was a major practice in western India between the sixth and ninth centuries.
  • Common figures include tirthankaras like Mahavira, Parshvanath, or Adinath, often seated on a throne, either alone or in groups.
  • Female figures representing yakshinis or Shasanadevis (like Chakreshvari for Adinath and Ambika for Neminath) were also cast.
  • Stylistically, these bronzes show influences from both the Gupta and Vakataka periods.

Buddhist Bronzes

Gupta and Post-Gupta Periods

During the fifth, sixth, and seventh centuries in North India (especially Uttar Pradesh and Bihar), many standing Buddha images were cast.

• Characteristics:
  • The right hand is typically in the abhaya mudra (gesture of fearlessness).
  • The sanghati (monk's robe) covers the shoulders, wraps over the left arm, and spreads in a wide curve at the ankles.
  • The figure is modeled with subtlety and delicacy, appearing youthful and proportionate compared to the earlier Kushana style.
• Two Styles of Drapery:
  • Mathura Style: Shows drapery folds in a series of drooping curves. An example is the bronze from Dhanesar Khera, Uttar Pradesh.
  • Sarnath Style: Features foldless, smooth drapery. The monumental Buddha image from Sultanganj, Bihar, is an outstanding example.

Vakataka Bronzes

Found in Phophnar, Maharashtra, these bronzes are from the same period as the Gupta bronzes.

• They show the influence of the third-century CE Amaravati style from Andhra Pradesh.
• A key difference is the draping of the robe: the right hand in abhaya mudra is free, allowing the drapery to cling to the body's contour, creating a continuous flowing line on the right side of the figure.

Pala School of Bronzes

A school of bronze-casting emerged around the ninth century in Buddhist centers like Nalanda under the Pala Dynasty in Bihar and Bengal.

• Sculptors at Kurkihar (near Nalanda) revived the classical Gupta style.
• A remarkable example is a four-armed Avalokitesvara in a graceful tribhanga (three-bended) posture.
• The rise of Vajrayana Buddhism led to the worship of female goddesses. Images of Tara became very popular, often shown seated on a throne with her right hand in the abhaya mudra.

Bronzes from Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir

Created mostly during the eighth, ninth, and tenth centuries, these bronzes have a very distinct style. They include images of both Buddhist deities and Hindu gods and goddesses.

• Vishnu Iconography: A notable development was the worship of a four-headed Vishnu, known as Chaturanana or Vaikuntha Vishnu.
  • The central face represents Vasudeva.
  • The other faces are of Narasimha (the lion avatar) and Varaha (the boar avatar).
• Dynamic bronzes of the Narasimha avatar and Mahishasuramardini Durga are also famous from this region.

South Indian Bronzes

The art of bronze casting reached its peak in South India during the medieval period.

Pallava Period (8th-9th Centuries)

While bronze images were cast during this time, the art form would be perfected later. A known Pallava icon is of Shiva seated in ardhaparyanka asana (one leg dangling), with his right hand in achamana mudra, as if about to drink poison.

Chola Period (10th-12th Centuries)

This period produced some of the most beautiful and exquisite bronze statues, making Chola bronzes highly sought after by art lovers worldwide.

• Patronage: The widowed Chola queen, Sembiyan Maha Devi, was a distinguished patron in the tenth century.
• Famous Icons:
  • Nataraja (Dancing Shiva): This iconic form was fully evolved during the Chola period.
  • Kalyanasundara Murti: A ninth-century representation of Shiva and Parvati's marriage (Panigrahana), depicted in two separate statuettes.
  • Ardhanarisvara Murti: An ingenious representation of the union of Shiva and Parvati in a single image.
  • Parvati: Beautiful independent figures of Parvati were modeled in the graceful tribhanga posture.

Vijayanagar Period (16th Century)

In Andhra Pradesh, sculptors began experimenting with portrait sculpture to preserve the memory of royal patrons.

• At Tirupati, life-size standing bronze statues of King Krishnadevaraya and his two queens, Tirumalamba and Chinnadevi, were cast.
• These sculptures combine a realistic likeness of the facial features with an idealized, imposing, and graceful depiction of the body.
• The king and queens are shown in a praying posture, with both hands in the namaskara mudra.

The Lost-wax Process

The lost-wax process is a specialized technique for making metal objects. While it's used across India, regions like Himachal Pradesh, Odisha, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and West Bengal each have slightly different methods.

Here are the basic steps:

1. Create a Wax Model: First, an artist makes a detailed model of the sculpture using pure beeswax. The wax is melted, strained, and then pressed through a tool to create "noodle-like" wires, which are wound to form the image.
2. Cover with Clay: The wax model is coated with a thick paste made of clay, sand, and cow-dung. A clay pot is fixed to an opening on one side, which will be used for pouring the metal.
3. Melting and Pouring: The clay-covered model is fired in a kiln. As it heats up, the wax inside melts and drains out (hence the name "lost-wax"). Molten metal (often scrap metal) is then poured into the hollow space left by the wax. [!note] The amount of metal needed is calculated precisely: it is typically ten times the weight of the original wax model.
4. Cooling and Finishing: The metal fills the mold and takes the exact shape of the original wax image. Once it cools, the outer clay mold is broken away.
5. Final Touches: The metal image is then chiseled and filed to smoothen it and give it a final, polished finish. Sometimes, an alloy of five metals—gold, silver, copper, brass, and lead—is used.

Nataraja

The Nataraja is a famous Chola period bronze sculpture depicting the Hindu god Shiva as the cosmic dancer. This dance is associated with the end of the cosmic world.

• Posture and Balance: Shiva balances on his right leg, crushing apasmara, the demon of ignorance or forgetfulness.
• Raised Leg: His left leg is raised in the bhujangatrasita stance. This represents tirobhava, the act of kicking away the veil of maya (illusion) from the devotee's mind.
• Four Arms:
  • Main Right Hand: Held in abhaya hasta, a gesture of fearlessness and protection.
  • Upper Right Hand: Holds the damaru (a small drum) to keep the rhythm, or tala, of creation.
  • Upper Left Hand: Carries a flame, symbolizing destruction.
  • Main Left Hand: Held in dola hasta, pointing towards his raised foot, signifying a path to salvation.
• Surrounding Details:
  • His hair locks fly outwards, touching a circular ring of flames called the juala mala, which surrounds the entire figure.