Chapter Notes

Badami

After the great mural paintings of Ajanta, very few sites with paintings survived. However, the tradition of decorating excavated caves with sculptures and paintings continued. One of the most important sites to carry this tradition forward was Badami in Karnataka.

Badami was the capital of the early Chalukyan dynasty, which came to power in the Deccan after the decline of the Vakatakas. The Badami caves were patronised by the Chalukya king, Mangalesha (ruled 543 to 598 CE), the younger son of King Pulakesi I.

An inscription in Cave No. 4, dated 578–579 CE, describes the beauty of the cave and mentions the dedication of an image of Vishnu. This tells us that the patron, King Mangalesha, was a follower of Vaishnavism. For this reason, the cave is often called the Vishnu Cave.

Features of Badami Paintings

Unfortunately, only fragments of the paintings in Badami have survived. They are located on the vaulted roof of the front hall (mandapa).

• Themes: The paintings depict palace scenes. One famous panel shows Kirtivarman (Mangalesha's elder brother) seated in his palace with his wife and other nobles, watching a dance performance. Figures of the god Indra and his followers are also shown in a corner.
• Style: The style of painting in Badami is considered an extension of the Ajanta mural tradition, carrying it into South India.
• Artistic Skill: The artists of the sixth century CE showed great maturity and skill. This is visible in:
  • Sinuously drawn lines and fluid forms.
  • Compact composition of the scenes.
  • Gracefully drawn faces of the king and queen, which are similar to the modelling style seen in Ajanta.
  • Facial Features: The figures have large eye sockets, half-closed eyes, and protruding lips. The artists cleverly used simple lines (contours) to create a sense of volume and make the facial structures appear three-dimensional.

Murals under the Pallava, Pandya and Chola Kings

The tradition of mural painting spread further south into Tamil Nadu, where it evolved with regional variations under different dynasties.

Pallava Paintings (7th Century CE)

The Pallava kings, who succeeded the Chalukyas in parts of South India, were great patrons of the arts.

• Patronage: King Mahendravarman I (seventh century) was a key patron. An inscription at Mandagapattu gives him titles like Vichitrachitta (curious-minded), Chitrakarapuli (tiger among artists), and Chaityakari (temple builder), showing his deep interest in art. He initiated the building and painting of temples at Panamalai, Mandagapattu, and Kanchipuram. Later, King Rajsimha patronised paintings at the Kanchipuram temple.
• Surviving Examples: Only fragments of these paintings remain today.
  • In Panamalai, there is a graceful figure of a female divinity.
  • In Kanchipuram, traces of a painting depicting Somaskanda (a representation of Shiva with his wife Parvati and son Skanda) can be seen.
• Stylistic Features:
  • Faces are round and large.
  • Lines are rhythmic and flowing.
  • There is increased ornamentation compared to earlier periods.
  • The depiction of the torso is similar to earlier sculptural traditions but is more elongated.

Pandya Paintings (9th Century CE)

When the Pandyas came to power, they continued to patronise art.

• Locations: Surviving examples of Pandya paintings are found in the Tirumalaipuram caves and the Jaina caves at Sittanvasal.
• Sittanvasal Paintings: These are the most significant examples, visible on ceilings, verandas, and brackets.
  • Themes: On the pillars of the veranda, there are paintings of dancing celestial nymphs.
  • Stylistic Features:
    • The outlines of the figures are firmly drawn in vermilion red against a lighter background.
    • The bodies are rendered in yellow with subtle modelling to show form.
    • The limbs are supple, and the faces are expressive, capturing the rhythm of the dance.
    • A distinct feature is the slightly elongated eyes that sometimes appear to protrude from the face. This feature became common in later paintings across the Deccan and South India.

Chola Paintings (9th to 13th Century CE)

The Chola kings continued the tradition of building grand temples and decorating them with carvings and paintings. The peak of Chola art was reached in the eleventh century.

• Patronage and Temples: The great temples of Brihadeswara at Thanjavur, Gangaikonda Cholapuram, and Darasuram were built during the reigns of Rajaraja Chola, his son Rajendra Chola, and Rajaraja Chola II, respectively.
• Brihadeswara Temple Paintings: While some paintings are found at Nartamalai, the most important Chola murals are in the Brihadeswara temple.
  • Location: They were painted on the walls of the narrow passage surrounding the main shrine.
  • Discovery: A fascinating discovery revealed two layers of paintings. The top layer was from the Nayak period (sixteenth century). When this was carefully cleaned, the magnificent Chola paintings underneath were unveiled.
  • Themes: The paintings depict narrations related to Lord Shiva, such as Shiva in Kailash, Shiva as Tripurantaka (destroyer of three cities), and Shiva as Nataraja (the cosmic dancer). They also include a portrait of the patron king Rajaraja and his mentor Kuruvar, as well as other dancing figures.

Vijayanagara Murals (14th to 16th Centuries)

After the decline of the Cholas, the Vijayanagara Dynasty rose to power, controlling the region from its capital, Hampi.

• Locations: Vijayanagara paintings survive in several temples.
  • Tiruparakunram (near Trichy): Paintings here from the fourteenth century represent the early phase of the Vijayanagara style.
  • Virupaksha temple, Hampi: Paintings on the ceiling of the mandapa narrate events from dynastic history and episodes from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Important panels include one showing Vidyaranya, the spiritual teacher of King Bukkaraya Harsha, being carried in a procession, and another depicting the incarnations of Vishnu.
  • Lepakshi (Andhra Pradesh): The walls of the Shiva temple here contain glorious examples of Vijayanagara paintings.
• Stylistic Features: The Vijayanagara painters developed a distinct pictorial language.
  • Figures and objects are shown two-dimensionally.
  • Faces are typically shown in profile, but with large, frontal eyes.
  • Figures have narrow waists.
  • Lines become more still and less fluid than in the Chola period.
  • Compositions are often arranged in neat, rectangular compartments.

Nayaka Murals (17th and 18th Centuries)

The paintings of the Nayaka dynasty are largely an extension of the Vijayanagara style, with some regional changes.

• Locations: Nayaka paintings are found in Thiruparakunram, Sreerangam, and Tiruvarur in Tamil Nadu.
• Themes: The paintings depict a variety of subjects, including:
  • Scenes from the life of Vardhaman Mahavira.
  • Episodes from the Mahabharata and the Ramayana.
  • Scenes from Krishna-leela (the life of Krishna).
  • Stories of Shiva (as Bhikshatana Murti) and Vishnu (as Mohini).
• Stylistic Features:
  • Figures are mostly in profile and set against a flat background.
  • Male figures have slim waists, but their abdomens are less heavy compared to Vijayanagara figures.
  • Artists continued to create a sense of movement and dynamism in their compositions.

Kerala Murals (16th to 18th Centuries)

Painters in Kerala developed their own unique style and technique, though they did adopt some elements from the Nayaka and Vijayanagara schools.

• Influences: The Kerala style was heavily influenced by local contemporary art forms like the dance-drama Kathakali and the ritual floor painting known as kalam ezhuthu.
• Stylistic Features:
  • Use of vibrant and luminous colours.
  • Human figures are depicted in three-dimensionality, giving them a sense of volume and depth.
• Themes: The subjects are distinct from other regions. Most narrations are based on episodes from Hindu mythology that were popular in Kerala, often drawing from local oral traditions and regional versions of the Ramayana and Mahabharata.
• Locations: Mural paintings have been found at over sixty sites in Kerala. These include:
  • Palaces: The Dutch palace in Kochi, Krishnapuram palace in Kayamkulam, and Padmanabhapuram palace.
  • Temples: Pundareekapuram Krishna temple, Triprayar Sri Rama temple, and Trissur Vadakkunathan temple.

Living Mural Traditions

The tradition of mural painting is not just a thing of the past. It continues to be a living art form across India.

• In many villages and towns, women decorate the walls of their homes, especially during festivals and ceremonies.
• Some famous traditional forms of mural art that are still practiced today include:
  • Pithoro in parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat.
  • Mithila painting in the Mithila region of northern Bihar.
  • Warli paintings in Maharashtra.