Chapter Notes

Indian Art and Architecture

From the second century BCE onwards, the vast Mauryan Empire gave way to several new rulers. In the north, dynasties like the Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas, and Guptas rose to power. In southern and western India, the Satvahanas, Ikshavakus, Abhiras, and Vakataks established their control. This period also saw the rise of major Brahmanical sects, including the Vaishnavas (worshippers of Vishnu) and the Shaivas (worshippers of Shiva).

This era produced an incredible amount of art and architecture. Some of the most prominent sites with fine sculptures include:

• Vidisha, Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh)
• Bodhgaya (Bihar)
• Jaggayyapeta (Andhra Pradesh)
• Mathura (Uttar Pradesh)
• Khandagiri-Udaigiri (Odisha)
• Bhaja and Pavani (Maharashtra)

Bharhut

The sculptures at Bharhut in Madhya Pradesh mark an important phase in Indian art. They share some features with the earlier Mauryan period but also have their own distinct style.

Characteristics of Bharhut Sculptures:

• Form and Relief: The figures, like the Mauryan Yaksha and Yakhshini images, are tall. However, they are carved in low relief, meaning they don't project much from the stone surface. This gives them a linear and somewhat flat appearance, as if the images are sticking to the background.
• Perspective: To create an illusion of three-dimensionality in narrative panels, artists used a tilted perspective.
• Narrative Style: The storytelling is very clear and focuses on the main events.
  • Initially, panels had very few characters. Over time, more figures began to appear alongside the main character.
  • Artists often "clubbed" multiple events that happened in the same location into a single picture. For example, the Ruru Jataka panel shows the Boddhisattva deer rescuing a man, the king aiming an arrow at the deer, and the rescued man pointing out the deer to the king—all in one frame.
• Physical Features: Due to the shallow carving, it was difficult to show projecting hands and feet naturally. This resulted in figures with hands folded flat against their chests and feet in awkward positions. The bodies and arms often appear stiff.
• Evolution: Over time, artists developed techniques for deeper carving, which allowed for more pronounced volume and a more naturalistic representation of human and animal bodies. This gradual improvement can be seen at sites like Bharhut, Bodhgaya, and Sanchi Stupa-2.

Sanchi

The next phase of sculptural development is clearly visible at Sanchi Stupa-1 in Madhya Pradesh, as well as in Mathura and Vengi (Andhra Pradesh). The art at Sanchi shows a significant stylistic progression from Bharhut.

Stupa-1 at Sanchi:

• Architecture: This stupa is a world heritage site and one of the finest examples of stupa architecture. It features both a lower and a unique upper pradakshinapatha (circumambulatory path). It is famous for its four beautifully decorated gateways, or toranas, which were built in the four cardinal directions.
• History: The stupa was originally a small brick structure that was later expanded and covered with stone. The presence of an Ashokan lion-capital pillar indicates Sanchi's importance as an early monastic and artistic center.

Sculptural Style at Sanchi Stupa-1:

• High Relief: Unlike the low relief at Bharhut, the figure compositions are in high relief, filling the entire space and projecting significantly from the background.
• Naturalism and Movement: The depiction of postures becomes much more naturalistic. The earlier stiffness is gone, and the images are given a sense of movement.
• Advanced Technique: The carving techniques are more advanced than those at Bharhut. The heads of figures, for instance, have considerable projection.
• Symbolic Representation: The Buddha is still not shown in human form. Instead, he is represented through symbols like an empty throne, feet, a chhatra (parasol), or a stupa.
• Elaborate Narratives: The stories depicted, taken from the life of the Buddha and the Jatakas, are more detailed and elaborate. Historical narratives, such as the siege of Kushinara and Emperor Ashoka's visit to the Ramgrama Stupa, are carved with great detail.
• Shalbhanjikas: A remarkable feature of the gateways are the shalbhanjika sculptures—figures of a lady holding the branch of a tree. These images are noted for their graceful poses and excellent treatment of volume.

Mathura, Sarnath and Gandhara Schools

From the first century CE onwards, three regions emerged as major centers of art production: Gandhara (in modern-day Pakistan), Mathura in northern India, and Vengi in Andhra Pradesh. This period marks a monumental shift in Buddhist art.

The Gandhara School:

• Influences: The sculptural tradition here was a unique blend of Bactrian, Parthian, and local Gandhara traditions. It is most famous for its Hellenistic (Greco-Roman) features.
• Buddha Head from Taxila (Example): A Buddha head from Taxila, dating to the second century CE, clearly shows these hybrid features.
  • It has Greco-Roman elements like thick, curly hair, a large forehead, and protruding eyeballs.
  • The face is not round like in other Indian styles.
  • The features are treated with sharp linearity, and the surface is smooth, creating an expression of calmness and naturalism.

The Mathura School:

• Local Tradition: The art of Mathura was based on a strong local tradition, which was so influential that it spread to other parts of northern India, like Sanghol in Punjab.
• Buddha Image: The Mathura Buddha image was modeled on earlier Yaksha figures.
• Religious Diversity: While a large number of Buddhist images were produced, Mathura also created images for Jainism (images of Teerthankars) and Brahmanical faiths (Vaishnava and Shaiva deities). Kings' portraits, like the famous headless statue of Kanishka, were also sculpted here.
• Seated Buddha from Katra Mound (Example): This image from the second century CE is a classic example of the Mathura style.
  • The Buddha is seated in padmasana (cross-legged) with his right hand in abhayamudra (a gesture of fearlessness).
  • The body is fleshy with broad shoulders, and the face is round and smiling.
  • The garment (sanghati) covers only the left shoulder.
  • He is attended by two Boddhisattvas, Padmapani and Vajrapani.
  • A large, decorated halo surrounds his head. The overall look is earthy and flexible, replacing earlier rigidity.

Evolution of the Mathura Style:

1. Early Phase: Bold carving, round smiling faces, relaxed flesh.
2. Second Century CE: Images become more sensual and fleshier.
3. Late Fourth Century CE: The fleshiness is reduced, and the drapery becomes less voluminous.
4. Fifth and Sixth Centuries CE: The drapery becomes very fine and transparent, appearing integrated into the sculptural mass.

The Sarnath School:

• New Center: Along with Mathura, Sarnath and Kosambi emerged as important centers for sculpture.
• Distinct Style: The Sarnath school developed its own distinct features, especially in its Buddha images.
• Seated Buddha from Sarnath (Example): This late fifth-century CE image is a masterpiece of the Sarnath school.
  • It depicts the dhammachackrapravartana (the Buddha's first sermon), symbolized by the wheel and deer on the throne below.
  • The body is slender, well-proportioned, and slightly elongated.
  • The drapery is completely transparent, clinging to the body and revealing its form.
  • The face is round with half-closed eyes, and the halo behind the head is large but very simply decorated, in contrast to the ornate halos of Mathura.
  • The overall effect is one of spiritual grace, softness, and calmness, representing the Buddha as a great being who achieved nibbana (cessation of anger and hate).

Buddhist Monuments of South India

In Andhra Pradesh, the Vengi region was home to many important stupa sites, including Jagayyapetta, Amaravati, Bhattiprolu, Nagarjunkonda, and Goli.

The Amaravati School:

• Architecture: The mahachaitya (great stupa) at Amaravati was a magnificent structure. A unique feature was that its dome was covered with carved limestone slabs depicting narrative scenes.
• Evolution: Like Sanchi, the early phase at Amaravati did not have images of the Buddha. Human figures of the Buddha began to be carved in the later phase (second and third centuries CE).
• Sculptural Style: The style is known for its intense emotion and dynamic energy.
  • Figures are slender and show a great deal of movement, often depicted in the tribhanga (three bents) pose.
  • Compositions are more complex than at Sanchi, using pronounced volume and overlapping figures to create a sense of three-dimensional space.
• Nagarjunkonda and Goli: In the third century CE, the sculptures at nearby Nagarjunkonda and Goli show a reduction in the animated movement seen at Amaravati. The carving is in lower relief, but the artists skillfully created the effect of protruding body surfaces.

Cave Tradition in Western India

In western India, a strong tradition of excavating Buddhist caves began in the second century BCE. These rock-cut structures served as monasteries (viharas) and prayer halls (chaityas).

Architectural Types:

1. Apsidal vault-roof chaitya halls: This common type, found at Ajanta, Pitalkhora, and Bhaja, has a semi-circular (apsidal) back end and a vaulted roof.
2. Apsidal vault-roof pillarless hall: A variation found at Thana-Nadsur.
3. Flat-roofed quadrangular hall: A later design, with a flat roof and a circular chamber at the back, found at Kondivite.

A stupa at the back of the hall is a common feature in all chaitya caves. The entrance is often dominated by a large, semi-circular window known as a chaitya arch.

Viharas (Monasteries):

• The standard plan for a vihara consists of a veranda, a central hall, and small cells for monks cut into the surrounding walls.
• Important viharas are found at Ajanta (Cave No. 12) and Nashik (Cave Nos. 3, 10, 17). The Nashik viharas are known for their front pillars carved with a ghata-base and ghata-capital (pot-shaped base and top).

Major Cave Sites:

• The most important sites are Ajanta, Ellora, Nashik, Bhaja, Junnar, Karla, and Kanheri.
• Karla: Home to the largest rock-cut chaitya hall in India.
• Junnar: Has the largest number of cave excavations (over two hundred).
• Kanheri: Has one hundred and eight excavated caves.

Ajanta

Located in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra, Ajanta is the most famous cave site in India, renowned for its magnificent sculptures and, most importantly, its paintings.

• Structure: There are twenty-nine caves in total. Four are chaitya halls, and the rest are viharas.
• Two Phases of Creation:
  1. Early Phase (2nd-1st Century BCE): Cave Nos. 9, 10, 12, and 13.
  2. Later Phase (Late 5th - Early 6th Century CE): Most of the other caves, under the patronage of Vakataka kings and their feudatories.
• Later Chaitya Caves (Nos. 19 & 26): These are elaborately carved, with facades decorated with images of the Buddha and Boddhisattvas. Cave No. 26 is immense and contains a variety of sculptures, including a colossal image of the Mahaparinibbana Buddha (his death).

The Paintings of Ajanta: Ajanta is the only place in India with surviving paintings from the first century BCE and the fifth century CE.

• Early Paintings (Caves 9 & 10):
  • Figures have heavy proportions and are arranged in a linear way.
  • Lines are sharp, and the color palette is limited.
  • The style is similar to the sculptures at Sanchi.
• Later Paintings (Caves 1, 2, 16 & 17):
  • These paintings show a highly developed style. Lines are rhythmic and forceful.
  • Artists used outward projections and merged body color with the outer line to create a three-dimensional effect.
  • A variety of skin colors are used, representing a diverse population.
  • The themes include events from the life of the Buddha, Jatakas (stories of his previous births), and Avadanas (heroic deeds).
• Padmapani Boddhisattva (Cave 1): This is one of the most famous paintings at Ajanta.
  • The Boddhisattva, holding a lotus (padma), is depicted with large shoulders and a graceful body with three bents.
  • The modeling is soft, and the outlines merge with the body to create a 3D effect.
  • The figure wears a large, detailed crown, and his eyes are half-closed and elongated, conveying a sense of compassion.
• Mara Vijaya (Cave 26): This is the largest and one of the most dynamic sculptural panels at Ajanta.
  • It depicts the Buddha's victory (Vijaya) over the demon Mara (personification of desire) just before his enlightenment.
  • The Buddha is seated calmly in the center, while all around him is the chaos of Mara's army, including grotesque figures and dancing women, trying to disturb him.
  • The composition is complex and full of movement, showing a very mature sculptural style.

Ellora

About 100 km from Ajanta, Ellora is another major cave site, unique for having monasteries associated with three different religions: Buddhism, Brahmanism (Hinduism), and Jainism.

• Time Period: The caves were excavated from the fifth to the eleventh centuries CE.
• Stylistic Diversity: Ellora is known for its stylistic eclecticism, meaning a confluence of many different art styles in one place. This is because guilds of artisans came from various regions like Vidarbha, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu to work here.
• Buddhist Caves (1-12): These caves are very large, with some being double or even triple-storeyed. They contain many images from Vajrayana Buddhism, such as Tara, Mahamayuri, and Avalokiteshwara.
• Brahmanical Caves (13-29): Many of these are dedicated to Shiva, with grand panels depicting themes like Ravana shaking Mount Kailash. Vaishnavite themes, showing the avatars of Vishnu, are also present. The sculptures are monumental and heavy, with a powerful sense of volume.
• Cave 16 (Kailash Temple): This is the most spectacular monument at Ellora. It is not a cave but a complete, free-standing temple carved out of a single, massive rock.

Elephanta Caves and Other Sites

• Elephanta Caves: Located on an island near Mumbai, this site is contemporary with Ellora and is dominated by the Shaivite faith. The sculptures here show more slenderness in the body and a dramatic use of light and dark effects.
• Continuation of the Tradition: The rock-cut cave tradition continued in other parts of the Deccan, including:
  • Karnataka: At Badami and Aiholi (under the Chalukyas).
  • Andhra Pradesh: Near Vijayawada.
  • Tamil Nadu: At Mahabalipuram (under the Pallavas).

Cave Tradition in Eastern India

Rock-cut caves were also excavated in eastern India, particularly in Andhra Pradesh and Odisha.

• Andhra Pradesh: The main site is Guntapalle, which is unique for having structured stupas, viharas, and excavated caves all in one place. The caves here are smaller than those in western India and date back to the second century BCE. Another important site, Anakapalli, has the largest rock-cut stupas in the country.
• Odisha: The earliest examples are the Udaigiri-Khandagiri caves near Bhubaneswar. Inscriptions of the Jain king Kharavela state that these caves were meant for Jain monks. Many are simple, single-cell excavations, while some larger caves have a pillared veranda and cells decorated with narrative sculptures. The figures here are voluminous and carved with great skill.