Chapter Notes

The Rise of Indo-Islamic Architecture

Between the seventh and eighth centuries CE, Islam spread towards India, brought by merchants, traders, holy men, and conquerors over a period of 600 years. While some Muslim construction began in the eighth century in regions like Sind and Gujarat, large-scale building activity truly started in the early thirteenth century with the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate.

A Fusion of Styles

Before the arrival of Islamic architectural influences, India was already skilled in creating monumental buildings. The common construction method was trabeation, which uses pillars, brackets, and lintels (beams) to support a flat roof or a small, shallow dome. This is like stacking blocks, where a horizontal beam rests on two vertical posts.

The new rulers introduced the arcuate form of construction. This style used arches and domes to span large spaces, which had several advantages:

• Strength: True arches, built with a series of interlocking wedge-shaped blocks called voussoirs and a central keystone, could support the immense weight of large domes.
• Spacious Interiors: Domes, supported by architectural elements like pendentives and squinches at the corners of a square room, allowed for vast, open interiors without the need for numerous pillars.

This new architecture wasn't just a replacement of old styles; it was a blend. Muslim patrons absorbed local Indian traditions and combined them with their own practices from Persian, Turkish, and Saracenic traditions. This fusion of techniques, shapes, and decorations is known as Indo-Saracenic or Indo-Islamic architecture.

Religious Influences on Decoration

Art and religion are deeply connected. The differences between Hindu and Islamic beliefs led to very different decorative styles.

• Hindu Tradition: Believing in multiple manifestations of god, Hindus decorated all surfaces of their temples with intricate sculptures and paintings of living forms.
• Islamic Tradition: Islam forbids the replication of living forms in religious art. As a result, Muslim artists and architects developed non-figurative decorative arts. They adorned surfaces with:
  • Arabesque: Complex, flowing designs of intertwined floral and foliate patterns.
  • Geometrical Patterns: Intricate patterns using shapes like stars, hexagons, and octagons.
  • Calligraphy: The art of beautiful handwriting, often featuring verses from the Quran inscribed on plaster and stone.

Typologies of Structures

With the establishment of new rule, several new types of buildings were introduced to the Indian subcontinent to meet both religious and secular needs. These included:

• Mosques and Jama Masjids (congregational mosques) for prayers.
• Tombs and dargahs (shrines of Sufi saints).
• Minars (towers).
• Hammams (public baths).
• Formally laid out gardens.
• Madrasas (schools).
• Sarais or caravansarais (inns for travellers).
• Kos minars (milestones).

These structures were typically commissioned by the wealthy, including rulers, nobles, merchants, and guilds. While influenced by Saracenic, Persian, and Turkish styles, they were heavily shaped by local Indian craftsmanship, available materials, and the aesthetic tastes of their patrons.

Categories of Styles

To better understand the evolution and regional variations of Indo-Islamic architecture, it is conventionally divided into four categories:

1. The Imperial Style (Delhi Sultanate)
2. The Provincial Style (found in regions like Mandu, Gujarat, Bengal, and Jaunpur)
3. The Mughal Style (centered in Delhi, Agra, and Lahore)
4. The Deccani Style (prominent in Bijapur and Golconda)

Architectural Influences

While the Imperial style set the standard in Delhi, provincial styles developed unique regional characters by blending local traditions.

• The architecture of Bengal and Jaunpur is considered distinct.
• Gujarat developed a markedly regional style by borrowing elements from local temple traditions. This included using toranas (ceremonial gateways), carved bell and chain motifs, and panels depicting trees in their mosques, tombs, and dargahs.
• The 15th-century white marble dargah of Shaikh Ahmad Khattu of Sarkhej in Gujarat is a prime example of the provincial style and later influenced the design of Mughal tombs.

Decorative Forms

Indo-Islamic architecture is renowned for its rich and varied surface decoration.

• Plaster and Stone Work: Designs were created by incising plaster (stucco) or carving in stone. These could be left plain or painted with colours.
• Motifs: A variety of floral motifs, from both the subcontinent and Iran, were popular. The lotus bud fringe was often used on the inner curves of arches. Walls were decorated with depictions of cypress and chinar trees, as well as flower vases.
• Tile Work: From the 14th century onwards, polychrome (multi-coloured) tiles in shades of blue, turquoise, green, and yellow were used to decorate walls and domes.
• Inlay Work: Later, advanced techniques were used for surface decoration, especially on the lower parts of walls known as dado panels.
  • Tessellation: Creating mosaic designs.
  • Pietra Dura: A pictorial mosaic technique using precisely cut semi-precious stones like yellow marble, jade, and jasper.
  • Lapis Lazuli: This rich blue stone was sometimes used for inlay on interior walls.

Other Decorative Elements

• Jalis: Profusely used ornamental perforated lattice screens, often with geometric or arabesque patterns.
• Carving: Both high-relief (three-dimensional look) and low-relief carving were employed.
• Arches: Early arches were plain and squat, but from the 16th century, they became more elaborate with trefoil (three-lobed) or multiple foliations. The spandrels (triangular spaces above the arch) were often decorated with medallions or bosses.
• Roofs: The roofline was often a mix of a large central dome, smaller domes, chatris (small, domed cupolas on pillars), and tiny minarets. The central dome was frequently topped with an inverted lotus flower motif and a metal or stone pinnacle.

Materials for Construction

The choice of materials was practical and often based on local availability.

• Walls: Buildings had extremely thick walls, constructed mainly of easily available rubble masonry. These were then covered with chunam (limestone plaster) or cased with dressed (cut and polished) stone.
• Stone: A wide range of stones was used, including quartzite, sandstone (red and buff), and marble.
• Bricks: From the 17th century, bricks became more common, allowing for greater flexibility in construction.

Forts

In medieval India, forts were powerful symbols of a king's power and seat of authority. Capturing an enemy's fort often meant the complete loss of their power or sovereignty. Famous examples include the forts of Chittor, Gwalior, Daulatabad (formerly Devgiri), and Golconda.

Strategic Design

Forts were masterpieces of military engineering, built with clever strategic devices to defend against attackers.

• Location: They were often built on commanding heights, providing strategic advantages for security and a clear view of the surrounding region.
• Concentric Walls: Forts like Golconda had multiple concentric circles of outer walls, forcing an enemy to breach several layers of defense.
• Complex Entrances: Daulatabad fort featured staggered entrances to prevent gates from being battered open by elephants. It also had a complex labyrinth of pathways where a wrong turn could lead an enemy soldier to fall hundreds of feet.
• Invincibility: The Gwalior Fort was considered invincible due to its steep height, making it impossible to scale. The Mughal emperor Babur was said to be overawed by its sight.
• Chittorgarh: Known as the largest fort in Asia, it was a massive complex with numerous buildings, towers (stambhas), and water bodies.

Minars

Minars, a type of tower or stambha, were a common feature in the subcontinent. While their practical use was for the azaan (call to prayer), their massive height also symbolized the might and power of the ruler.

• Qutub Minar, Delhi: Built in the 13th century, this 234-foot-high tapering tower has five storeys.

  • It is a mix of polygonal and circular shapes.
  • Built mainly of red and buff sandstone, with some marble in the upper levels.
  • Features highly decorated balconies and bands of inscriptions intertwined with floral designs.
  • It is also associated with the revered Sufi saint, Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.

• Chand Minar, Daulatabad: Built in the 15th century, this is a 210-foot-high tapering tower with four storeys.

  • Its facade once featured chevron (V-shaped) patterns in encaustic tile work and bold bands of Quranic verses.
  • Though it looks Iranian, it was a combined effort of local architects and those from Delhi and Iran.

Tombs

Building monumental tombs over the graves of rulers and royalty was a popular practice in medieval India. Famous examples include the tombs of Ghyasuddin Tughlaq, Humayun, and Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan in Delhi, and of Akbar and Itmaduddaula in Agra.

The architectural concept behind these tombs was often linked to the idea of eternal paradise as a reward for the true believer. This led to "paradisiacal imagery" in their design:

• Quranic verses were inscribed on the walls.
• Tombs were placed within beautiful gardens, often in the charbagh style (a garden divided into four quadrants), near a body of water, or both.

Sarais

Sarais, or inns, were a hugely important feature of medieval India. These structures were built along trade routes and around cities to provide temporary accommodation for travellers, pilgrims, merchants, and traders.

• They were typically built on a simple square or rectangular plan.
• As public spaces, they became vibrant hubs where people from diverse cultural backgrounds interacted. This interaction led to the blending of cultures and syncretic (fused) tendencies among the common people.

Structures for Common People

The fusion of architectural styles was not limited to royal projects. It was also seen in buildings used by non-royal sections of society, including:

• Buildings for domestic use
• Temples, mosques, and khanqahs (hermitages of Sufi saints)
• Commemorative gateways, pavilions, and bazaars.

Mandu: A Provincial Masterpiece

The city of Mandu, located on the Malwa Plateau, is a classic example of the medieval provincial style of architecture. Its natural defenses made it a desirable capital for various rulers, including the Parmara Rajputs, Afghans, and Mughals.

Adaptation to Environment

Mandu is a fine example of how architecture can be adapted to its environment.

• The buildings were designed as light and airy arched pavilions that did not retain heat.
• They were built close to nature, often around artificial lakes.
• Local stone and marble were used effectively.

Key Structures in Mandu

• Hindola Mahal ("Swinging Palace"): This was the Sultan's audience hall. Its massive sloping buttress walls create an impression that the walls are swinging.
• Jahaaz Mahal ("Ship Palace"): An elegant two-storey palace built between two artificial reservoirs, making it look like a ship. It served as a royal pleasure resort and harem, complete with open pavilions and a complex arrangement of watercourses.
• Hoshang Shah's Tomb: A majestic marble structure with a beautiful dome and intricate jali work. It blends the robustness of Afghan architecture with softer, decorative Indian elements like carved brackets and toranas.
• Jama Masjid: A large-scale congregational mosque built of red sandstone, featuring a monumental gateway, an open courtyard, and columned cloisters topped with domes.

Taj Mahal

Built in Agra by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan as a mausoleum for his wife Mumtaz Mahal, the Taj Mahal is considered the peak (apogee) of Indo-Islamic architecture's evolutionary process.

Elements of Perfection

The sublime beauty of the Taj Mahal comes from a combination of factors:

• Symmetry and Proportion: The building has an orderly, simple plan with perfect proportions. The height of the building up to the pinnacle is equal to its width.
• Material: The use of white marble from the Makrana mines gives it an ethereal, otherworldly quality. The building's appearance changes with the light at different times of the day.
• Setting: It is perfectly placed at the end of a Chahar Bagh garden, with the Yamuna river flowing behind it. A monumental red sandstone gateway frames the first view of the mausoleum.
• Architectural Plan:
  • The tomb sits on a high plinth, with four tall minarets at its corners.
  • The main structure is a square with chamfered (cut-off) corners, creating an eight-sided building.
  • A large central dome on a high drum, surrounded by four smaller cupolas, creates a beautiful skyline.
  • To maintain perfect balance, a red sandstone mosque lies to its west, with a similar building (jawab, or "answer") to the east.
• Interior: The interior has a vaulted, octagonal tomb chamber with the cenotaphs of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan. A double dome creates a vast, high ceiling inside. Light filters in through intricately carved marble jalis.

Embellishments

Four types of decoration were used with great effect:

1. High and low relief stone carvings on the walls.
2. Delicate carving of marble into jalis and graceful volutes (spiral ornaments).
3. Pietra dura and tessellation to create arabesques and geometric designs.
4. Calligraphy, with Quranic verses inlaid in black jasper into the white marble, serving both as decoration and a spiritual connection.

Gol Gumbad

Located in Bijapur, Karnataka, the Gol Gumbad is the mausoleum of Muhammad Adil Shah, the seventh Sultan of the Adil Shahi Dynasty. Though unfinished, it is a striking monument known for its grandeur.

Architectural Features

• Massive Scale: The Gumbad is a monumental square building made of dark gray basalt, with each wall being 135 feet long and 110 feet high. The entire structure, including the dome, rises over 200 feet.
• The Great Dome: The building is famous for its majestic dome, which has a diameter of 125 feet and covers an uninterrupted floor space of 18,337 square feet—the second largest in the world.
  • The dome was constructed over a square base using pendentives, which helped transfer its massive weight to the walls below.
• Whispering Gallery: An amazing acoustical system exists in the gallery running around the drum of the dome. Here, even the softest sounds are magnified and echoed multiple times.
• Corner Towers: At the four corners are seven-storeyed octagonal towers that resemble minarets and contain staircases.
• Convergence of Styles: Gol Gumbad blends Timurid and Persian styles (in its dome and arches) with Deccani traditions (in its surface embellishments and use of local materials).

Jama Masjid

Large congregational mosques, known as Jama Masjids, were central to medieval Indian cities.

• Function: They were built to hold congregational prayers every Friday afternoon, which required a minimum of forty Muslim male adults. During these prayers, a Khutba (sermon) was read in the name of the ruler.
• Structure: A typical Jama Masjid was a large building with an open courtyard, surrounded by cloisters on three sides. The western wall, known as the Qibla Liwan, contained the mihrab (a niche indicating the direction of Mecca) and the mimbar (a stepped pulpit for the Imam).
• Socio-Cultural Hub: The Jama Masjid and its surroundings became the focus of city life for both Muslims and non-Muslims, serving as a center for commercial, cultural, and religious activity.