Chapter Notes

Temple Architecture and Sculpture

Most of the art and architecture that has survived from Ancient and Medieval India is religious. This is because religious structures were often built with durable materials like stone, while everyday homes were made from materials like wood and clay that have perished over time. This guide explores the diverse temple styles across India, focusing primarily on Hindu temples but also covering significant Buddhist and Jain structures.

Early Temples

As the practice of building stupas continued, the construction of Brahmanical (Hindu) temples and images of gods began to flourish. These temples were often decorated with sculptures depicting gods and stories from the Puranas.

Every temple was dedicated to a principal deity. The shrines within these temples were of three main kinds:

• Sandhara type: These temples included a covered ambulatory passageway, or pradakshinapatha, for circumambulation.
• Nirandhara type: These temples did not have a pradakshinapatha.
• Sarvatobhadra: These shrines were designed to be accessible from all four sides.

Important early temple sites include Deogarh in Uttar Pradesh, and Eran, Nachna-Kuthara, and Udaygiri in Madhya Pradesh. These early temples were typically simple structures, consisting of a veranda, a hall, and a shrine at the back.

The Basic Form of the Hindu Temple

A Hindu temple has several fundamental components, which became more complex over time.

• (i) Sanctum (Garbhagriha): Literally meaning 'womb-house', the garbhagriha is the innermost sanctum where the main deity's icon is housed. It started as a small cubicle with a single entrance and grew larger in later periods.
• (ii) Mandapa: This is the entrance hall or portico of the temple. It provides space for a large number of worshippers.
• (iii) Spire (Shikhar or Vimana): Freestanding temples feature a mountain-like spire. In North India, this is a curving tower called a shikhar. In South India, it is a pyramidal tower known as a vimana.
• (iv) Vahan: This is the mount or vehicle of the temple's main deity. The vahan, along with a standard pillar (dhvaj), is typically placed in a direct line of sight with the sanctum.

Sculpture, Iconography and Ornamentation

The study of religious images and their symbolism is called iconography. While the core meaning of a deity might remain constant, its depiction could change based on local social, political, or geographical contexts.

The placement of sculptures within a temple was carefully planned:

• Entrance: In Nagara temples, river goddesses like Ganga and Yamuna are often found at the entrance to the garbhagriha. In Dravida temples, fierce doorkeepers called dvarapalas guard the gateways (gopurams). Auspicious figures like mithunas (erotic images), navagrahas (nine planets), and yakshas also guard entrances.
• Outer Walls: The outer walls of the sanctum often feature various forms of the main deity. The ashtadikpalas (deities of the eight directions) are placed facing their respective directions.
• Subsidiary Shrines: Smaller shrines around the main temple are dedicated to the family or incarnations of the main deity.
• Ornamentation: Decorative elements like gavaksha (an arch-like motif), vyala/yali (a mythical creature), kalpa-lata (a stylized vine), amalaka (a fluted disc), and kalasha (a vase-like finial) are used in distinct ways.

The Nagara or North Indian Temple Style

The Nagara style of temple architecture became popular in northern India. Key features include:

• The entire temple is often built on a high stone platform with steps leading up to it.
• It usually lacks elaborate boundary walls or gateways.
• The garbhagriha is always located directly beneath the tallest tower, or shikhara. Early temples had one shikhara, while later ones had several clustered together.

There are three main sub-types of Nagara temples, based on the shape of the shikhara:

1. Latina or Rekha-prasada: This is the most common type. The shikhara is square at the base and its walls curve inwards to a point at the top, creating a tall, sharply rising tower.
2. Phamsana: These buildings are broader and shorter than latina types. Their roofs are composed of several slabs that slope upwards on a straight incline to a single point. Phamsana roofs are often used for the mandapas, while the garbhagriha is housed in a latina-style building.
3. Valabhi: These are rectangular buildings with a vaulted roof, often called 'wagon-vaulted buildings'. This shape was inspired by ancient bamboo or wooden wagons and is also seen in the plans of Buddhist rock-cut chaitya caves.

Central India

Temples in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan share many features, most notably the use of sandstone.

• Gupta Period Temples: Some of the oldest surviving structural temples from the Gupta Period are in Madhya Pradesh. These are modest shrines with a small mandapa supported by four pillars and a small garbhagriha. Examples can be found at Udaigiri and Sanchi.
• Deogarh Temple: Built in the early sixth century CE in Uttar Pradesh, the temple at Deogarh is a classic example of late Gupta architecture. It is built in the panchayatana style, with a main shrine on a rectangular plinth and four smaller subsidiary shrines at the corners. Its tall, curving latina shikhara makes it an early example of the classic Nagara style. The temple is west-facing and features three main reliefs of Vishnu: Sheshashayana, Nara-Narayan, and Gajendramoksha.
• Khajuraho Temples: Built by the Chandela Kings in the tenth century, the temples at Khajuraho show a dramatic evolution of the Nagara style.
  • The Lakshmana temple (954 CE) is dedicated to Vishnu. It sits on a high platform, has four corner shrines, and its shikharas rise high in a curved pyramidal fashion, ending in an amalak (fluted disc) and a kalash (vase).
  • The Kandariya Mahadeo temple is considered the epitome of Central Indian temple architecture.
  • Khajuraho temples are famous for their extensive erotic sculptures (mithun), which were considered auspicious and placed at entrances or on exterior walls. The sculptures are highly stylized, in almost full relief, with sharp features.
• Chausanth Yogini Temple: This is a unique, older temple at Khajuraho made of granite blocks, dedicated to goddesses associated with Tantric worship.

West India

This region includes Gujarat, Rajasthan, and western Madhya Pradesh.

• Materials: Temples were built using various stones, from sandstone and basalt to the famous soft white marble used in Jain temples at Mount Abu and Ranakpur.
• Samlaji: This site in Gujarat is important for showing a mix of earlier regional art with a post-Gupta style, creating a distinct sculptural tradition.
• Sun Temple, Modhera: Built in 1026 by Raja Bhimdev I of the Solanki Dynasty, this temple in Gujarat is a remarkable example of western Indian architecture.
  • It features a massive rectangular stepped tank called the surya kund, with 108 miniature shrines carved into its steps.
  • An ornamental arch (torana) leads to the assembly hall (sabha mandapa), which is open on all sides.
  • The walls of the central shrine are plain, as the temple faces east, allowing the sun to shine directly into it during the equinoxes.

East India

This region includes the North-East, Bengal, and Odisha, each with its own distinct temple styles.

• Assam: Early art in Assam shows the influence of the Gupta style. By the twelfth century, a distinct regional style known as the Ahom style developed, mixing the local Pala style with influences from migrating Tais from Upper Burma. The Kamakhya temple, a Shakti Peeth, was built in the seventeenth century.
• Bengal: The Pala style (9th-11th centuries) and Sena style (11th-13th centuries) are named after the ruling dynasties.
  • The ninth-century Siddheshvara Mahadeva temple shows a tall, curving shikhara similar to those in Odisha.
  • A prominent local feature was the curving bamboo roof of a Bengali hut, which influenced temple design and even Mughal architecture, where it is known as the Bangla roof.
  • In the seventeenth century, many terracotta brick temples were built, combining local building techniques with older Pala forms and Islamic arches and domes. These are found in places like Vishnupur and Bankura.
• Odisha: The temples of Odisha form a distinct sub-style within the Nagara order.
  • The shikhara, called a deul, is vertical for most of its height and then curves sharply inwards at the top. The mandapa is called a jagamohana.
  • The ground plan is usually square, and the exteriors are lavishly carved, while interiors are often bare.
  • The Sun temple at Konark, built around 1240, is a masterpiece. It was designed as a colossal processional chariot for the Sun god, with twelve pairs of enormous carved wheels and seven sculpted horses. Its main shikhara, now collapsed, was said to be 70 meters high.

The Hills

A unique form of architecture developed in the hilly regions of Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal, and Kashmir, blending various influences.

• Influences: The region's proximity to Gandhara sites brought a strong Gandhara influence. This mixed with Gupta and post-Gupta traditions from the plains, as well as local traditions of wooden buildings with pitched roofs.
• Kashmir: The Karkota period was significant for architecture. The Pandrethan temple (8th-9th centuries) is a Hindu shrine built on a plinth in the middle of a water tank. Its peaked roof is designed for snowy conditions, and it is moderately ornamented.
• Chamba (Himachal): Sculptures here, like those at the Laksna-Devi Mandir, show an amalgamation of local traditions with a post-Gupta style, influenced by Kashmiri metal sculpture.
• Kumaon (Uttarakhand): Temples at Jageshwar and Champavat are classic examples of Nagara architecture in the region.

The Dravida or South Indian Temple Style

The Dravida style is distinct from the Nagara style in several ways:

• Compound: The temple is enclosed within a compound wall.
• Gateway (Gopuram): The entrance gateway in the front wall is known as a gopuram. These are often massive and ornate.
• Tower (Vimana): The main temple tower, the vimana, is a stepped pyramid that rises geometrically, unlike the curving Nagara shikhara.
• Shikhara: In the south, the term shikhara refers only to the crowning element at the very top of the vimana, which is often shaped like a small stupika or an octagonal cupola.
• Guards: The entrance to the garbhagriha is guarded by fierce dvarapalas (door-keepers).
• Temple Tank: A large water reservoir is a common feature within the complex.

Famous temple towns in Tamil Nadu include Kanchipuram, Thanjavur, Madurai, and Kumbakonam.

Pallava Architecture

The Pallavas (6th-8th century) were major patrons of temple architecture in Tamil Nadu.

• Their early buildings were rock-cut, while later ones were structural.
• Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram) is their most famous site, with numerous rock-cut and structural temples.
• The Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram, built during the reign of Narasimhavarman II (Rajasimha), is a key example. It uniquely houses three shrines: two for Shiva and one for Vishnu.

Chola Architecture

The Cholas built temples on a massive scale.

• The Rajarajeswara or Brahadeeshwarar temple at Thanjavur, completed around 1009 by Rajaraja Chola, is the largest and tallest of all Indian temples.
• Its pyramidal vimana rises to a height of 70 meters and is topped by a monolithic octagonal dome (stupika).
• It features two large gopuras and hundreds of stucco figures decorating the vimana. The main deity is a huge Shiva lingam in a two-storeyed sanctum.

Architecture in the Deccan

The Deccan region, particularly Karnataka, developed a hybrid style of architecture known as Vesara, which incorporated elements from both Nagara and Dravida styles.

• Rashtrakutas: Their greatest achievement is the Kailashnath temple at Ellora. This entire temple complex, a complete Dravida-style building, was carved out of a single piece of living rock. The sculptures here are dynamic and larger than life.
• Chalukyas: The Early Western Chalukyas (from 543 CE) were known for their experimental architecture.
  • They built both rock-cut caves (like the Ravana Phadi cave at Aihole) and structural temples.
  • Pattadakal is a key site, with the Virupaksha temple being the most elaborate.
  • The Durga temple at Aihole is unique, with an apsidal shrine reminiscent of Buddhist chaitya halls and a Nagara-style shikhara. The Lad Khan temple at Aihole appears to be inspired by wooden-roofed hill temples but is built of stone.
• Hoysalas: Ruling from Mysore, the Hoysalas developed a highly original style.
  • Their temples have complex, star-shaped ground plans, known as a stellate-plan.
  • They used soft soapstone, which allowed artists to create incredibly intricate carvings, especially visible in the jewellery of the deities.
  • The Hoysaleshvara temple at Halebid (built in 1150) is a prime example. It is a double building dedicated to Shiva as Nataraja, with profuse decorative carvings.
• Vijayanagara: The architecture of the Vijayanagara empire (founded 1336) synthesized Dravida temple architecture with Islamic styles from neighboring sultanates.

Buddhist and Jain Architectural Developments

Buddhist and Jain architectural traditions flourished alongside Hindu ones, often at the same sites like Ellora and Khajuraho.

Buddhist Architecture

• Bodhgaya: This is a major Buddhist pilgrimage site where Siddhartha became the Buddha. The Mahabodhi Temple is an important brick structure. Its design is unusual—narrow like a Nagara temple but rising straight without curving, like a Dravida one.
• Nalanda: This monastic university in Bihar was a mahavihara (a complex of many monasteries). Founded in the fifth century CE by Kumargupta I, it became a world-renowned center of learning.
  • It was a prolific center for art production, influencing Buddhist art across Asia.
  • The Nalanda school of sculpture developed by the ninth century, synthesizing Gupta, local Bihar, and Central Indian traditions. Sculptures are known for their high quality, three-dimensional forms, and delicate ornamentation.
• Other Sites: Other important Buddhist sites include Sirpur in Chhattisgarh and the monasteries of Lalitagiri, Vajragiri, and Ratnagiri in Odisha.

Jain Architecture

Jains were prolific temple builders across India.

• Deccan and Central India: Important Jain sites are found at Ellora, Aihole, Deogarh, and Khajuraho.
• Karnataka: This state has a rich heritage of Jain shrines. The most famous is at Sravana Belagola, home to the 18-meter-high monolithic granite statue of Gomateshwara (Lord Bahubali), the world's tallest monolithic free-standing structure.
• Mount Abu, Rajasthan: The Jain temples here, constructed by Vimal Shah, are famous for their simple exteriors and incredibly ornate marble interiors. The ceilings have unique patterns, and the carvings create a lace-like appearance.
• Palitana, Gujarat: The Shatrunjay hills near Palitana host a massive cluster of Jain temples, forming a major pilgrimage site.

Mahabalipuram

Mahabalipuram was an important coastal town under the Pallavas, known for its rock-cut and structural temples from the seventh and eighth centuries. A famous sculptural panel here, one of the largest and oldest in the world, depicts one of two stories:

1. The Descent of the Ganga: The story of the river Ganga coming down from heaven to earth.
2. Arjuna's Penance (Kiratarjuniya): The story of Arjuna performing penance to obtain a powerful weapon from Shiva.

A natural cleft in the rock was cleverly used as a channel for water to flow down into a tank. The panel features numerous figures, including an ascetic (identified as either Bhagirath or Arjuna), Shiva, celestials, and remarkably lifelike animals, such as elephants and a cat humorously imitating the ascetic's penance.

Ravana Shaking Mount Kailasha

This theme is depicted several times in the caves of Ellora, but the most famous is the colossal sculpture on the left wall of the Kailashnath temple (Cave No. 16), dating to the eighth century CE.

• The composition shows the multi-armed demon king Ravana shaking Mount Kailasha from below.
• Above, Shiva and a frightened Parvati are seated. Parvati is shown moving close to Shiva, creating a dramatic effect.
• The sculpture is known for its dynamic energy, voluminous figures, and masterful use of light and shadow created by deep carving.

Lakshmana Temple in Khajuraho

The Lakshmana temple, completed in 954 CE by the Chandella king Yashovarman, represents the fully developed Nagara style of Khajuraho.

• Material: It is made of sandstone.
• Plan: It follows a panchayana plan, built on a high plinth. It consists of a series of halls (ardhamandapa, mandapa, maha mandapa) leading to the garbhagriha.
• Structure: Each part has a separate roof that rises in height towards the back, culminating in a tall shikhara over the garbhagriha.
• Sculpture: The walls are decorated with sculptures, including the famous erotic images. The interior halls and the entrance to the garbhagriha are also profusely decorated. The main image in the garbhagriha is of Chaturmukha Vishnu.