Individual GamesClass 11 Health And Physical Education Notes

25 min read
Generated by KedovoAI
Section 1 of 7

Athletics

Athletics are based on the most natural and universal forms of human movement: running, jumping, and throwing. The organized competitions we see today, known as track and field events, are improved versions of these basic physical expressions and are among the oldest sporting competitions in history.

History

The first recorded examples of organized track and field events come from the Ancient Olympic Games.

  • In 776 B.C. in Olympia, Greece, the games began with only one event: the stadion footrace.
  • Over time, more running events were added. A major step toward modern athletics was the introduction of the Ancient Olympic pentathlon, which combined five events: discus throw, long jump, javelin throw, the stadion foot race, and wrestling.

The popularity of these events spread from Greece to Rome. During the Middle Ages, similar competitions developed in Northern Europe. For example, the modern shot put and hammer throw events have their roots in stone put and weight throw competitions popular in Celtic societies. The last major event to evolve was the pole vault in the eighteenth century.

By the late 19th century, track and field began to be organized as a distinct sport, separate from general festivals.

  • The first competitive hurdling event, the steeplechase, appeared in England around 1850.
  • In 1880, England established The Amateur Athletic Association (AAA), the first national governing body for athletics.
  • The United States held its first national competition, the USA Outdoor Track and Field Championship, in 1868.

The modern Olympic Games, established at the end of the nineteenth century, elevated track and field to a new level. The 1896 Summer Olympics featured a program of track and field events, including the marathon, and solidified the use of metric measurements for all races, jumps, and throws. In 1912, the International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF) was founded to be the international governing body for the sport.

Indian History of Athletics

The period from the 1940s to the 1950s was crucial for athletics in India, as many associations were formed. In 1946, the Amateur Athletics Federation of India (AAFI) was established to manage and improve the sport in the country.

Initially, many events in India were played on grass. Today, synthetic tracks have made competitions easier by eliminating the need for manual marking. Technology has significantly helped athletes and improved the status of the sport. India has produced many successful international athletes, including early pioneers like Milkha Singh and T.C. Yohannan, and contemporary stars like P.T. Usha and Anju Bobby George.

Classification of Athletics Events

Athletics events are broadly classified into four types:

  • Track Events: All running competitions.
  • Field Events: All jumping and throwing competitions.
  • Combined Events: Competitions that are a mix of track and field events, such as the decathlon (for men) and heptathlon (for women).
  • Events conducted outside the stadium: These include road races like the marathon (42.195 km) and long-distance walks (20 km and 50 km).

Classification of Track Events

Track events are divided into three main categories:

  • Short Distance Races: 100 m, 200 m, 400 m, 110 m Hurdles (Men), 100 m Hurdles (Women), 4x100 m relay, and 4x400 m relay.
  • Middle Distance Races: 800 m and 1500 m.
  • Long Distance Races: 3000 m steeplechase, 5000 m, 10,000 m, 20 km walking, 50 km walking, and the Marathon.

Classification of Field Events

Field events are split into two categories:

  • Jumping Events: Long Jump, High Jump, Triple Jump, and Pole Vault.
  • Throwing Events: Shot Put, Discus Throw, Javelin Throw, and Hammer Throw.

Classification of Combined Events

Combined events test an athlete's all-around ability by mixing track and field disciplines.

  • Decathlon (Men): A ten-event competition held over two days.
    • Day 1: 100 m, Long Jump, Shot Put, High Jump, 400 m.
    • Day 2: 110 m Hurdles, Discus Throw, Pole Vault, Javelin Throw, 1500 m.
  • Heptathlon (Women): A seven-event competition held over two days.
    • Day 1: 100 m Hurdles, High Jump, Shot Put, 200 m.
    • Day 2: Long Jump, Javelin Throw, 800 m.

General Rules for Athletics

  • Athletes must run in shoes and wear a number on their chest and back.
  • A false start (running before the gun fires) results in immediate expulsion from the event. In combined events, one warning is given before expulsion on the second foul.
  • A referee can expel any athlete who deliberately obstructs another.
  • In races up to 400 m, athletes must stay in their assigned lanes for the entire race.
  • The 800 m race begins in lanes, but after the first curve, athletes can move to the inside lane.

Athletics Track

A standard athletics track is an oval shape formed by two straight sections and two curves. While tracks can be made of soil or grass, international competitions use synthetic tracks, also known as all-weather tracks. For races up to and including 400 m, each athlete runs in a separate lane that is 1.22 m to 1.25 m wide.

Methods of starting the Race

Sprint races use a Crouch Start to maximize an athlete's explosive power and reaction time. This start requires the use of a starting block, which provides support for the athlete to push off from.

There are three main types of crouch starts, differing in the placement of the starting blocks.

  1. Bunch or Bullet Start: The blocks are placed close together (8-11 inches apart) and relatively near the starting line. This position is slightly unstable, which helps the athlete leave the blocks very quickly.
  2. Medium Start: The blocks are set at a moderate distance from the line and from each other. This is considered the most balanced start and is used by most athletes.
  3. Elongated Start: The blocks are placed farther apart (25-29 inches) and closer to the starting line.

The starting process for a sprint race follows three commands:

  1. On Your Marks: The athlete moves to the starting block, placing hands behind the line and distributing body weight on the rear knee and hands.
  2. Set: The athlete raises their hips slightly above the shoulders, shifting weight onto the front foot and hands. This creates a tense, unstable position, ready for explosion.
  3. Gun Shot: The athlete pushes off the blocks as quickly as possible, gradually lifting their body into a running posture.

Types of Finishing

A race finish can be decided by fractions of a second. Athletes use specific techniques to cross the line.

  • Lunging forward: The athlete thrusts their chest forward by throwing their arms backward just before the finish line.
  • Shoulder shrug: The athlete bends their shoulders, head, and upper body toward the finish line.
  • Run through: Often used by new athletes, this involves running at full speed through the finish line without slowing down.

Relay Races

Relay races are team events where four runners each run a segment of the total distance, passing a baton to the next runner.

  • The two main relay events are the 4 x 100 meter and 4 x 400 meter races.
  • The baton must be exchanged within a marked 20 m exchange zone.
  • If the baton is dropped, only the athlete who dropped it can pick it up.

There are three common methods of baton exchange:

  • Downward pass: The incoming runner places the baton downwards into the outgoing runner's hand, who has their palm facing up.
  • Upward pass: The outgoing runner forms a 'V' shape with their hand, and the incoming runner passes the baton upwards into it. This is considered easier for beginners.
  • Push pass: Similar to the downward pass, the incoming runner pushes the baton forward into the outgoing runner's hand.

Jumping Events

Long Jump

In the long jump, an athlete sprints down a runway and jumps from a take-off board into a sand pit, aiming for maximum distance. Speed, power, and flexibility are crucial.

Phases of Long Jump:

  1. Runway: The athlete builds up maximum speed to generate momentum.
  2. Take-off: The athlete pushes off the board with their stronger foot, lifting their hands and body upwards.
  3. Flight: While in the air, the athlete uses techniques like the Hang Technique or Hitch-kick Technique to maintain forward motion.
  4. Landing: The athlete lands with both feet simultaneously, keeping legs straight and arms forward to maintain balance and maximize measured distance.

High Jump

In the high jump, the athlete must jump over a horizontal crossbar. After three consecutive failures at a particular height, the athlete is eliminated.

Techniques of High Jump:

  • Scissor Jump: An older technique where the athlete jumps over the bar one leg at a time.
  • Western Roll: The athlete rolls over the bar and lands on their back.
  • Straddle Technique: The athlete rolls their body near the bar, clearing it one leg at a time.
  • Fosbury Flop: The most popular modern technique, where the athlete approaches the bar on a curve, jumps off one foot, and arches their back over the bar, landing on their shoulders.

Throwing Events

Shot Put

The shot put is a throwing event where an athlete "puts" (pushes) a heavy metal ball, or shot, as far as possible. The shot for men weighs 7.260 kg, and for women, it is 4.00 kg.

Techniques of Shot Put:

  1. Gliding Technique:
    • Grip: The shot rests at the base of the fingers, not in the palm.
    • Placement: The shot is placed under the ear, against the jawbone.
    • Glide: The athlete starts at the back of the throwing circle, glides across it on one foot to build momentum, and then rotates their body.
    • Final Phase: The athlete turns their hips and arm forward, pushing the shot out with explosive force and balancing on the front foot after release.
  2. Rotation Technique: The athlete starts facing the back of the circle and rotates their body one and a half times to generate powerful momentum before releasing the shot.

Discus Throw

In this event, an athlete throws a heavy disc, known as a discus. The discus for men weighs 2 kg, and for women, it is 1 kg. The athlete stands in a circular area and spins their body to build momentum before releasing the discus. The technique involves a series of coordinated steps, including initial swings, rotation of the lower body, and a powerful, balanced release where the body's rotational energy is transferred to the discus.

Types of Sports Awards

The Government of India recognizes outstanding athletes and coaches with several awards.

  • Dronacharya Award: Instituted in 1985, this award honors coaches for their dedication and for training athletes who achieve outstanding results.
  • Arjuna Award: Established in 1961, it is the highest national recognition for outstanding performance by a sportsperson in international events.
  • Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Award: Instituted in 1991-92, this is India's highest honor for achievement in sports.
  • Dhyan Chand Award: This award is given for lifetime achievement in sports.