Chapter Notes

Athletics

Athletics are based on the most natural and universal forms of human movement: running, jumping, and throwing. The organized competitions we see today, known as track and field events, are improved versions of these basic physical expressions and are among the oldest sporting competitions in history.

History

The first recorded examples of organized track and field events come from the Ancient Olympic Games.

• In 776 B.C. in Olympia, Greece, the games began with only one event: the stadion footrace.
• Over time, more running events were added. A major step toward modern athletics was the introduction of the Ancient Olympic pentathlon, which combined five events: discus throw, long jump, javelin throw, the stadion foot race, and wrestling.

The popularity of these events spread from Greece to Rome. During the Middle Ages, similar competitions developed in Northern Europe. For example, the modern shot put and hammer throw events have their roots in stone put and weight throw competitions popular in Celtic societies. The last major event to evolve was the pole vault in the eighteenth century.

By the late 19th century, track and field began to be organized as a distinct sport, separate from general festivals.

• The first competitive hurdling event, the steeplechase, appeared in England around 1850.
• In 1880, England established The Amateur Athletic Association (AAA), the first national governing body for athletics.
• The United States held its first national competition, the USA Outdoor Track and Field Championship, in 1868.

The modern Olympic Games, established at the end of the nineteenth century, elevated track and field to a new level. The 1896 Summer Olympics featured a program of track and field events, including the marathon, and solidified the use of metric measurements for all races, jumps, and throws. In 1912, the International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF) was founded to be the international governing body for the sport.

Indian History of Athletics

The period from the 1940s to the 1950s was crucial for athletics in India, as many associations were formed. In 1946, the Amateur Athletics Federation of India (AAFI) was established to manage and improve the sport in the country.

Initially, many events in India were played on grass. Today, synthetic tracks have made competitions easier by eliminating the need for manual marking. Technology has significantly helped athletes and improved the status of the sport. India has produced many successful international athletes, including early pioneers like Milkha Singh and T.C. Yohannan, and contemporary stars like P.T. Usha and Anju Bobby George.

Classification of Athletics Events

Athletics events are broadly classified into four types:

• Track Events: All running competitions.
• Field Events: All jumping and throwing competitions.
• Combined Events: Competitions that are a mix of track and field events, such as the decathlon (for men) and heptathlon (for women).
• Events conducted outside the stadium: These include road races like the marathon (42.195 km) and long-distance walks (20 km and 50 km).

Classification of Track Events

Track events are divided into three main categories:

• Short Distance Races: 100 m, 200 m, 400 m, 110 m Hurdles (Men), 100 m Hurdles (Women), 4x100 m relay, and 4x400 m relay.
• Middle Distance Races: 800 m and 1500 m.
• Long Distance Races: 3000 m steeplechase, 5000 m, 10,000 m, 20 km walking, 50 km walking, and the Marathon.

Classification of Field Events

Field events are split into two categories:

• Jumping Events: Long Jump, High Jump, Triple Jump, and Pole Vault.
• Throwing Events: Shot Put, Discus Throw, Javelin Throw, and Hammer Throw.

Classification of Combined Events

Combined events test an athlete's all-around ability by mixing track and field disciplines.

• Decathlon (Men): A ten-event competition held over two days.
  • Day 1: 100 m, Long Jump, Shot Put, High Jump, 400 m.
  • Day 2: 110 m Hurdles, Discus Throw, Pole Vault, Javelin Throw, 1500 m.
• Heptathlon (Women): A seven-event competition held over two days.
  • Day 1: 100 m Hurdles, High Jump, Shot Put, 200 m.
  • Day 2: Long Jump, Javelin Throw, 800 m.

General Rules for Athletics

• Athletes must run in shoes and wear a number on their chest and back.
• A false start (running before the gun fires) results in immediate expulsion from the event. In combined events, one warning is given before expulsion on the second foul.
• A referee can expel any athlete who deliberately obstructs another.
• In races up to 400 m, athletes must stay in their assigned lanes for the entire race.
• The 800 m race begins in lanes, but after the first curve, athletes can move to the inside lane.

Athletics Track

A standard athletics track is an oval shape formed by two straight sections and two curves. While tracks can be made of soil or grass, international competitions use synthetic tracks, also known as all-weather tracks. For races up to and including 400 m, each athlete runs in a separate lane that is 1.22 m to 1.25 m wide.

Methods of starting the Race

Sprint races use a Crouch Start to maximize an athlete's explosive power and reaction time. This start requires the use of a starting block, which provides support for the athlete to push off from.

There are three main types of crouch starts, differing in the placement of the starting blocks.

1. Bunch or Bullet Start: The blocks are placed close together (8-11 inches apart) and relatively near the starting line. This position is slightly unstable, which helps the athlete leave the blocks very quickly.
2. Medium Start: The blocks are set at a moderate distance from the line and from each other. This is considered the most balanced start and is used by most athletes.
3. Elongated Start: The blocks are placed farther apart (25-29 inches) and closer to the starting line.

The starting process for a sprint race follows three commands:

1. On Your Marks: The athlete moves to the starting block, placing hands behind the line and distributing body weight on the rear knee and hands.
2. Set: The athlete raises their hips slightly above the shoulders, shifting weight onto the front foot and hands. This creates a tense, unstable position, ready for explosion.
3. Gun Shot: The athlete pushes off the blocks as quickly as possible, gradually lifting their body into a running posture.

Types of Finishing

A race finish can be decided by fractions of a second. Athletes use specific techniques to cross the line.

• Lunging forward: The athlete thrusts their chest forward by throwing their arms backward just before the finish line.
• Shoulder shrug: The athlete bends their shoulders, head, and upper body toward the finish line.
• Run through: Often used by new athletes, this involves running at full speed through the finish line without slowing down.

Relay Races

Relay races are team events where four runners each run a segment of the total distance, passing a baton to the next runner.

• The two main relay events are the 4 x 100 meter and 4 x 400 meter races.
• The baton must be exchanged within a marked 20 m exchange zone.
• If the baton is dropped, only the athlete who dropped it can pick it up.

There are three common methods of baton exchange:

• Downward pass: The incoming runner places the baton downwards into the outgoing runner's hand, who has their palm facing up.
• Upward pass: The outgoing runner forms a 'V' shape with their hand, and the incoming runner passes the baton upwards into it. This is considered easier for beginners.
• Push pass: Similar to the downward pass, the incoming runner pushes the baton forward into the outgoing runner's hand.

Jumping Events

Long Jump

In the long jump, an athlete sprints down a runway and jumps from a take-off board into a sand pit, aiming for maximum distance. Speed, power, and flexibility are crucial.

Phases of Long Jump:

1. Runway: The athlete builds up maximum speed to generate momentum.
2. Take-off: The athlete pushes off the board with their stronger foot, lifting their hands and body upwards.
3. Flight: While in the air, the athlete uses techniques like the Hang Technique or Hitch-kick Technique to maintain forward motion.
4. Landing: The athlete lands with both feet simultaneously, keeping legs straight and arms forward to maintain balance and maximize measured distance.

High Jump

In the high jump, the athlete must jump over a horizontal crossbar. After three consecutive failures at a particular height, the athlete is eliminated.

Techniques of High Jump:

• Scissor Jump: An older technique where the athlete jumps over the bar one leg at a time.
• Western Roll: The athlete rolls over the bar and lands on their back.
• Straddle Technique: The athlete rolls their body near the bar, clearing it one leg at a time.
• Fosbury Flop: The most popular modern technique, where the athlete approaches the bar on a curve, jumps off one foot, and arches their back over the bar, landing on their shoulders.

Throwing Events

Shot Put

The shot put is a throwing event where an athlete "puts" (pushes) a heavy metal ball, or shot, as far as possible. The shot for men weighs 7.260 kg, and for women, it is 4.00 kg.

Techniques of Shot Put:

1. Gliding Technique:
   • Grip: The shot rests at the base of the fingers, not in the palm.
   • Placement: The shot is placed under the ear, against the jawbone.
   • Glide: The athlete starts at the back of the throwing circle, glides across it on one foot to build momentum, and then rotates their body.
   • Final Phase: The athlete turns their hips and arm forward, pushing the shot out with explosive force and balancing on the front foot after release.
2. Rotation Technique: The athlete starts facing the back of the circle and rotates their body one and a half times to generate powerful momentum before releasing the shot.

Discus Throw

In this event, an athlete throws a heavy disc, known as a discus. The discus for men weighs 2 kg, and for women, it is 1 kg. The athlete stands in a circular area and spins their body to build momentum before releasing the discus. The technique involves a series of coordinated steps, including initial swings, rotation of the lower body, and a powerful, balanced release where the body's rotational energy is transferred to the discus.

Types of Sports Awards

The Government of India recognizes outstanding athletes and coaches with several awards.

• Dronacharya Award: Instituted in 1985, this award honors coaches for their dedication and for training athletes who achieve outstanding results.
• Arjuna Award: Established in 1961, it is the highest national recognition for outstanding performance by a sportsperson in international events.
• Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Award: Instituted in 1991-92, this is India's highest honor for achievement in sports.
• Dhyan Chand Award: This award is given for lifetime achievement in sports.

Badminton

Badminton is one of the world's fastest racket sports and is popular for all ages. It helps develop physical skills like eye-hand coordination, agility, balance, and jumping.

History

The game was first played by British Army officers in Pune, India, in the 1860s, where it was known as Poona or Poonah. The modern name comes from the Duke of Beaufort's Badminton House in England.

• The International Badminton Federation (IBF) was established in 1934. It was renamed the Badminton World Federation (BWF) in 2006.
• Major team championships include the Thomas Cup (Men's World Team Championship, started 1948), Uber Cup (Women's World Team Championship, started 1956), and Sudirman Cup (World Mixed Team Championship, started 1989).
• Badminton became an official Summer Olympic sport at the Barcelona Olympics in 1992.

Measurement of Badminton Court and Specification of Equipment

• Court: A badminton court is a rectangle measuring 13.40 m x 6.10 m for doubles and 13.40 m x 5.18 m for singles. The lines are 4 cm wide and should be white or yellow.
• Net: The net is 1.55 m high at the posts and 1.524 m high at the center.
• Shuttlecock: A shuttle has 16 feathers and must weigh between 4.74 to 5.50 grams.
• Racket: The racket cannot exceed 680 mm in overall length and 230 mm in overall width.

How to play Badminton

The game starts with a toss. The winner chooses to serve or receive first, or which side of the court to start on.

• Service: The server must hit the shuttle below the waist into the diagonally opposite service court.
• Fault: A fault is called if the shuttle lands outside the boundaries, fails to pass over the net, hits the ceiling, or touches a player or their clothing.

Singles

• When the server's score is even (0, 2, 4, etc.), they serve from the right service court.
• When the server's score is odd (1, 3, 5, etc.), they serve from the left service court.
• If the server wins the rally, they score a point and serve again from the alternate court.
• If the receiver wins the rally, they score a point and become the new server.

Doubles

• A side has only one service.
• Service rules (serving from right on even scores, left on odd) are the same as in singles.
• If the serving side wins a rally, they score a point, and the same server serves again from the alternate court.
• If the receiving side wins, they score a point and become the new serving side. Players do not change their service courts until they win a point while their side is serving.

Scoring System

• A match is the best of three games, each played to 21 points.
• A point is scored on every serve (rally point system).
• If the score reaches 20-20, the side that first gains a two-point lead wins the game.
• If the score reaches 29-29, the side that scores the 30th point wins the game.
• There is a 60-second interval when the leading score reaches 11 points, and a two-minute interval between games.

Fundamental Skills of Badminton

Badminton involves a wide variety of strokes, categorized by where they are played on the court.

Basic Strokes

• Services: High Serve, Backhand Low Serve, Flick Serve.
• Forecourt Strokes (Net Strokes): Shots played close to the net, like Net Shot, Net Lift, and Net Kill.
• Midcourt Strokes: Shots played from the middle of the court, like Drives and Blocks.
• Rear Court Strokes: Shots played from the back of the court, like Clear, Smash, and Drop Shot.

High Serve

• Purpose: Used mainly in singles to send the shuttle high and deep into the opponent's court, forcing them back.
• Execution: The player stands sideways, drops the shuttle, and swings the racket forward in an underhand motion, hitting it high and long.

Backhand Low Serve

• Purpose: Used mainly in doubles to make the shuttle just clear the net and land in the front of the opponent's service court. This restricts the opponent's ability to attack.
• Execution: The server stands close to the 'T', holds the racket with a backhand grip, and pushes the shuttle gently over the net.

Gymnastics

Gymnastics is a sport that requires a combination of strength, flexibility, coordination, and grace.

History

Gymnastics originated in ancient Greece about 2,500 years ago as a form of training to keep citizens fit. The international governing body, the Federation of International Gymnastics (FIG), was formed in 1881.

Gymnastics in India

The Gymnastics Federation of India (GFI) was established in 1951. India first participated in Olympic gymnastics at the Helsinki Games in 1952. A notable achievement was by Dipa Karmakar, who became the first Indian female gymnast to qualify for the Olympics and finished fourth in the vault event at the Rio Olympics 2016.

Apparatus

Gymnastics events are performed on different types of equipment, called apparatus.

• Women's Apparatus (Four Events):
  1. Vaulting Table
  2. Uneven Bars
  3. Balancing Beam
  4. Floor Exercise
• Men's Apparatus (Six Events):
  1. Vaulting Table
  2. Horizontal Bar
  3. Floor Exercise
  4. Parallel Bars
  5. Roman Rings
  6. Pommel Horse

Specifications of Key Apparatus

• Uneven Bars (Women): Consists of two horizontal bars at different heights. The upper bar is 2.50 m high, and the lower bar is 1.70 m high.
• Horizontal Bar (Men): A single steel bar set 2.80 m above the landing mats.
• Pommel Horse (Men): An apparatus with two handles (pommels) on top. Gymnasts perform continuous circular movements with their legs without them touching the horse. The height is 1.15 m.
• Roman Rings (Men): Two wooden rings suspended from a frame, 3 m from the point of attachment. This event requires immense upper body strength.
• Vaulting Table (Men and Women): Gymnasts run down a runway, jump off a springboard, and perform acrobatic moves over the vaulting table. The height is 1.35 m for men and 1.25 m for women.
• Balancing Beam (Women): A narrow beam that is 5 m long and only 10 cm wide, set at a height of 1.25 m.
• Floor (Men and Women): A 12 m x 12 m performance area where gymnasts perform a routine of tumbling, acrobatic, and dance elements.
• Parallel Bars (Men): Two parallel bars set at a height of 2 m.

Advanced skills on apparatus

• Cartwheel on Balancing Beam: Performing a standard cartwheel along the length of the narrow beam, requiring exceptional balance and control.
• Back Handspring (Flic Flac) on Balancing Beam: A dynamic backward acrobatic move where the gymnast jumps backward onto their hands and then pushes off to their feet, all on the beam.
• KIP Technique on Uneven Bars: A fundamental skill used to mount the bar. The gymnast swings under the bar, brings their feet up to it, and then extends their hips to rise into a support position on top of the bar.

Judo

Judo is a modern martial art and combat sport that originated in Japan. Its name translates to "gentle way," as it focuses on using an opponent's force against them rather than relying on one's own strength.

History

Jigoro Kano created Judo in 1882 by adapting principles from an older martial art, Ju Jutsu. He developed it as a form of physical exercise and self-defense.

• Judo for men was introduced as an Olympic sport at the Tokyo Olympic Games in 1964.
• Women's Judo was added at the Barcelona Olympics in 1992.

Emergence of Judo in India

Judo was introduced in India in 1905 at Visva Bharati University. The Judo Federation of India (JFI) was formed in 1965. The sport gained prominence after Indian judokas won four bronze medals at the 1986 Asian Games in Seoul.

Basic Techniques

Judo techniques are categorized based on their application:

• Tachi-Waza: Standing techniques
• Koshi-Waza: Hip techniques
• Ashi-Waza: Leg techniques
• Te-Waza: Hand techniques
• Osae-komi-Waza: Ground techniques (Holds)
• Kensetsu-Waza: Arm lock techniques
• Shime-Waza: Choking techniques

Basic rules

A judo match (bout) lasts for four minutes. The goal is to score an Ippon (a winning point), which ends the match immediately.

Scoring:

• Ippon (One Full Point): An Ippon results in an instant win. It can be scored by:
  • Throwing an opponent cleanly onto their back with force and control.
  • Pinning an opponent on the floor for 20 seconds.
  • Forcing an opponent to surrender via an arm lock or stranglehold.
• Waza-ari (Half Point): Awarded for a throw that lacks one of the elements of an Ippon or for pinning an opponent for 10-19 seconds.

Penalties:

• Shido (Minor Penalty): Given for minor rule violations. Accumulating three shidos results in a Hansoku-make.
• Hansoku-make (Severe Penalty): Results in immediate disqualification and a win for the opponent.

If no Ippon is scored, the player with the higher score wins. If scores are tied, the player with fewer shidos wins. If still tied, the match goes into a Golden Score (overtime), where the first person to score or receive a penalty wins or loses.

Measurements of Contest Area in Judo

A Judo match takes place on tatami mats.

• The total competition area is a minimum of 14 m x 14 m.
• It is divided into two zones: an inner contest area (minimum 8 m x 8 m) and an outer safety area (minimum 3 m wide).

Swimming

Swimming is the act of moving through water using one's limbs. It is both a recreational activity and a competitive sport.

History

Competitive swimming emerged in England in the early 1800s.

• The first indoor swimming pool, St George's Baths, opened in 1828.
• Swimming was a part of the first modern Olympic Games in 1896 in Athens, but only for men.
• The world governing body, Federation Internationale de Natation (FINA), was formed in 1908.
• Women were first allowed to compete in swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics.

History of Swimming in India

The Swimming Federation of India (SFI) was formed in 1948 and is affiliated with FINA. Notable Indian swimmers include Khajan Singh, Nisha Millet, and Sandeep Sejwal.

Dimensions of Swimming Pool

An Olympic-sized swimming pool has the following specifications:

• Length: 50 m
• Width: 25 m
• Depth: Minimum 2.0 m
• Number of lanes: 10
• Lane width: 2.5 m
• Water temperature: 25-28°C

Fundamental rules and regulations

• A swimmer must complete the entire distance in their assigned lane.
• When turning, a swimmer must make physical contact with the wall.
• Standing on the bottom of the pool is allowed in freestyle events, but walking is not.
• Pulling on the lane rope or intentionally obstructing another swimmer is not allowed.
• In relay events, a swimmer's feet must not lose contact with the starting platform before the preceding teammate has touched the wall.

Fundamental Techniques

Swimming techniques are classified into three categories: Strokes, Starts, and Turns.

Strokes

There are four main competitive strokes:

1. Front Crawl (Freestyle): The swimmer is in a prone (face-down) position. The arms pull alternately underwater while recovering over the water. The legs perform a flutter kick. Breathing is done by turning the head to the side.
2. Back Crawl (Backstroke): The swimmer is in a supine (face-up) position. The arms move alternately, and the legs perform a flutter kick. Breathing is easier as the face is out of the water.
3. Breaststroke: The swimmer is in a prone position. The arms perform a simultaneous semi-circular pull, and the legs do a whip kick. The head comes up to breathe during each arm pull.
4. Butterfly: The swimmer is in a prone position. The arms move simultaneously in a circular motion over the water, and the legs perform a dolphin kick (both legs moving together). This is a powerful but physically demanding stroke.

Starts

For freestyle, breaststroke, and butterfly, swimmers dive from a starting platform. For backstroke, the start is from within the water, holding onto grips on the platform.

Turns

Turns are used to change direction at the end of the pool. Each stroke has specific rules for how the turn must be executed. For example, freestyle and backstroke use a flip turn, while breaststroke and butterfly require a two-hand touch on the wall.

Table Tennis

Table Tennis, also known as Ping-Pong, is a fast-paced indoor racket sport.

History

• The International Table Tennis Federation (ITTF) was founded in 1926.
• The Table Tennis Federation of India (TTFI) was also established in 1926 and was a founding member of the ITTF.
• Table Tennis became an Olympic sport at the 1988 Seoul Games.
• In 2001, the game rules changed from 21 points to 11 points per game to make it faster. The service rule also changed from five serves per player to two.

Facilities and Equipment Required

• Table: The playing surface is a rectangle, 2.74 m long and 1.525 m wide, positioned 76 cm above the floor. It has a white side-line and end-line. For doubles, a white center line divides the court.
• Net: The top of the net is 15.25 cm above the playing surface.
• Ball: The ball is spherical, 40 mm in diameter, weighs 2.7 g, and is made of plastic material.
• Racket: The racket can be any size, shape, or weight, but the blade must be flat and rigid. At least 85% of its thickness must be natural wood.

Functional Rules of Table Tennis

• Serving and Receiving: A toss decides who serves first. After every two points, the server becomes the receiver.
• Doubles Play: The serving pair decides who serves first. The receiving pair decides who receives first. Service alternates between players in a set sequence.
• Let: A rally is a "let" (and is replayed) if the served ball touches the net before landing on the opponent's side.
• Expedite System: If a game is not finished after 10 minutes (and fewer than 18 points have been scored), the expedite system starts. Service alternates after every point, and if the receiver makes 13 good returns, they win the point.

Scoring System

• A match is the best of an odd number of games (e.g., best of five).
• A game is won by the first player to score 11 points with a lead of at least two points.
• If the score is 10-10, play continues until one player gains a two-point lead.

Fundamental Techniques of Table Tennis

Grip

• Shakehand grip: The most common grip, similar to shaking someone's hand.
• Penhold grip: The racket is held like a pen, a grip mainly used by Asian players.

Service

Services can vary in speed, spin (topspin, backspin, sidespin), and length (short or long) to disrupt the opponent.

Types of Strokes

• Offensive Strokes: These are attacking shots like the drive (a direct, fast shot), loop (a heavy topspin shot), and smash (a powerful finishing shot).
• Defensive Strokes: These are used to return difficult shots, such as the push (a backspin shot played against a backspin ball), block (using the racket to block a fast shot near the table), and lob (hitting the ball high in the air).

Wrestling

Wrestling is one of the oldest forms of combat, involving grappling techniques like throws, takedowns, joint locks, and pins.

History

Wrestling has ancient roots, with evidence found in cave drawings and Egyptian records. It was a core part of military training in ancient Greece.

• Modern wrestling gained structure in the late 19th century.
• The international governing body, United World Wrestling (UWW), was founded in 1912 (originally as FILA).
• Women's wrestling was first included in the Olympic Games in 2004.

Wrestling in India

Wrestling, known as Malla Yuddh, has been popular in India since ancient times. The Wrestling Federation of India (WFI) was established in 1967 and is the national governing body. India has a rich tradition of producing world-class wrestlers like Sushil Kumar, Yogeshwar Dutt, Sakshi Malik, and Vinesh Phogat.

Types of wrestling

There are two main international styles of wrestling contested at the Olympics.

• Freestyle: Wrestlers can use their arms and legs and are allowed to hold opponents above or below the waist.
• Greco-Roman: Wrestlers can only use their arms and upper bodies to attack and can only hold opponents above the waist. Using legs for trips or holds is forbidden.

Fundamentals of Wrestling

• Weight Categories: To ensure fair competition, wrestlers compete in specific weight categories based on their age and weight.
• Costume: Wrestlers wear a one-piece uniform called a singlet (red or blue) and special wrestling shoes that support the ankles. Ear protectors are optional.
• Wrestling Arena: The competition takes place on a mat with a central wrestling area (7 meters in diameter) and an outer protection area.

Rules and Scoring

The main goal is to pin an opponent by holding both of their shoulder blades on the mat for at least two seconds. This results in an immediate victory, known as a fall. If no fall occurs, the match is decided by points.

Points are awarded for:

• Takedown (2 points): Taking an opponent down to the mat from a standing position and gaining control.
• Reversal (2 points): Gaining control from a defensive position on the bottom.
• Escape (1 point): Escaping from a controlled position on the bottom to a neutral position.
• Near fall (2 or 3 points): Exposing an opponent's back to the mat for several seconds.
• Penalty Points: Awarded for illegal holds or technical violations (e.g., fleeing the mat).

Duration of the Bout:

• For seniors and juniors, a bout consists of two periods of 3 minutes with a 30-second break.
• For school boys and cadets, it is two periods of 2 minutes.