Chapter Notes

PATHS TO MODERNISATION

Introduction: China and Japan in the 19th Century

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, East Asia was dominated by China under the powerful Qing dynasty. In contrast, Japan was a smaller, seemingly isolated island nation. However, their paths to modernisation would be dramatically different.

• China: Faced with challenges from colonial powers, the Qing government struggled to reform. This led to a loss of political control, civil war, and widespread turmoil. China's journey involved a slow, difficult process of redefining its traditions to build a modern nation free from foreign control. This path ultimately led to a revolution and the victory of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in 1949.
• Japan: Successfully transformed itself into a modern nation-state. It built an industrial economy and even its own colonial empire, defeating China in 1894 and the European power Russia in 1905. Japan's modernisation was based on capitalist principles and driven by a strong sense of nationalism and the ability to learn from the West while adapting its own traditions.

Sources of History

Both China and Japan have a long tradition of valuing history. Rulers in both nations established official departments to keep records and write dynastic histories.

• In early China, Sima Qian is considered the greatest historian.
• In Japan, one of the first acts of the Meiji government in 1869 was to create a bureau to write a history of the Meiji Restoration from the "victor's" perspective.

Modern scholars have a wealth of materials to study, including official histories, scholarly writings, popular literature, and accounts from European travellers like Marco Polo and Jesuit priests.

Physical and Cultural Contrasts

China:

• Geography: A vast continental country with diverse climate zones, dominated by three major river systems: the Yellow River, the Yangtse River, and the Pearl River. Much of the country is mountainous.
• People and Language: The dominant ethnic group is the Han. The major language is Chinese (Putonghua), but there are many other nationalities (Uighur, Hui, Manchu, Tibetan) and dialects (Cantonese, Shanghainese).
• Food: Reflects regional diversity. The best-known is southern Cantonese cuisine. Wheat is the staple in the north, while Szechuan cuisine is famously fiery.

Japan:

• Geography: A string of islands, with the four largest being Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku, and Hokkaido. Over 50% of the land is mountainous, and it is in a very active earthquake zone.
• People: The population is largely Japanese, with a small Ainu minority and Koreans who were forcibly brought as laborers.
• Food: Rice is the staple crop, and fish is the main source of protein. Raw fish, known as sashimi or sushi, is now popular worldwide.

JAPAN

The Political System before Modernisation

From 1603 to 1867, Japan was ruled by shoguns from the Tokugawa family. While an emperor existed in Kyoto, real power was held by the shogun in Edo (modern Tokyo).

• Structure of Power:

  • The country was divided into over 250 domains, each ruled by a lord called a daimyo.
  • The shogun controlled the daimyo by forcing them to spend long periods in Edo and also controlled major cities and mines.
  • The samurai (warrior class) were the ruling elite, serving the shoguns and daimyo.

• Key Developments in the Late 16th Century:

  1. Disarming the Peasantry: Only samurai were allowed to carry swords, which ensured peace and order.
  2. Controlling the Daimyo: Lords were ordered to live in the capitals of their domains, which grew into large cities.
  3. Stable Revenue: Land surveys were conducted to identify owners and taxpayers, ensuring a stable income for the government.

These changes led to the growth of a commercial economy with financial and credit systems. Cities like Edo, Osaka, and Kyoto became massive urban centers. A vibrant town culture developed, where merchants supported arts and theatre, and reading became so popular that one could rent a book for the price of a bowl of noodles.

The Meiji Restoration

The Tokugawa shogunate faced both internal discontent and external pressure. In 1853, the USA sent Commodore Matthew Perry to demand that Japan open its ports for trade and diplomatic relations.

• The "Opening" of Japan: Perry's arrival, with his powerful "black ships," was a major shock. It re-ignited the political importance of the emperor, who had been a figurehead for centuries.
• End of the Shogunate: In 1868, a movement forcibly removed the shogun from power and restored the emperor to a central role. Edo was renamed Tokyo ("eastern capital") and became the new imperial capital.

Meiji Reforms: Building a Modern Nation

The new government launched a series of reforms to transform Japan into a modern state.

• The "Emperor System": The emperor was presented as a symbol of both tradition (as a descendant of the Sun Goddess) and modernity (as a leader of westernisation). He wore Western-style military uniforms, and his birthday became a national holiday.
• Education: A new school system was introduced in the 1870s. Schooling became compulsory for boys and girls. The curriculum was based on Western models but also stressed loyalty to the nation and the emperor.
• Administration and Military: The government created a new administrative structure to integrate the nation. All young men over twenty had to perform military service, creating a modern army.
• New Constitution: A constitution was enacted, creating a parliament called the Diet. However, the military and bureaucracy remained under the direct command of the emperor, outside the control of the elected government. This created a tension between the push for democracy and the government's aggressive foreign policy.

Modernising the Economy

The Meiji government actively promoted industrialisation.

• Funding: Funds were raised through a new agricultural tax.
• Infrastructure: Japan’s first railway line was built between Tokyo and Yokohama in 1870-72.
• Technology Transfer: Textile machinery was imported from Europe. Foreign technicians were hired to train Japanese workers, and students were sent abroad to study.
• Rise of the Zaibatsu: The government supported large business organizations controlled by families, known as zaibatsu (e.g., Mitsubishi, Sumitomo), with subsidies and tax benefits. These companies came to dominate the economy.

Social Changes and Daily Life

Modernisation brought significant changes to Japanese society.

• Industrial Workers: The number of factory workers grew rapidly. Initially, over half were women, who organized the first modern strike in 1886. As factories grew larger, the number of male workers increased.
• Environmental Issues: The rapid, unregulated growth of industry led to environmental destruction. In 1897, Tanaka Shozo, a member of the first Diet, led the first major protest against industrial pollution from the Ashio Mine.
• Family Structure: The traditional patriarchal household with many generations living together began to give way to the nuclear family (homu), with a husband as the breadwinner and a wife as the homemaker.
• Urban Culture: Cities developed electric trams, public parks, and department stores. The term "Moga" (modern girl) emerged to describe the new ideas of gender equality and cosmopolitan culture. Movies, radio, and fashionable districts like Tokyo's Ginza became popular.

'Westernisation' and 'Tradition': An Intellectual Debate

Japanese intellectuals debated how to approach the West.

• Pro-Westernisation: Fukuzawa Yukichi, a leading Meiji intellectual, argued that Japan must "expel Asia" by shedding its traditional characteristics and embracing the "spirit of civilisation" from the West.
• Balancing Tradition: The next generation questioned this total acceptance. The philosopher Miyake Setsurei argued that each nation should develop its own special talents to contribute to world civilization.
• Liberalism and Democracy: Thinkers like Ueki Emori were inspired by the French Revolution and demanded a government based on democracy and individual freedom, not military power.

Aggressive Nationalism and War

The fear of Western domination was used to justify military expansion and silence opposition at home.

• The Meiji constitution gave the army and navy independent control, separate from the civilian government.
• This led to wars with China (1894-95) and Russia (1904-05), both of which Japan won.
• In the 1930s and 1940s, Japan launched wars to expand its empire in China and Asia, which merged into the Second World War after the attack on Pearl Harbor.

After Defeat: Re-emerging as a Global Economic Power

Japan's empire ended with its defeat in World War II, following the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

• US Occupation (1945-47): Japan was demilitarised, and a new constitution was introduced. Article 9, the "no war clause," renounces the use of war as an instrument of state policy. Women were given the right to vote in 1946.
• The Post-War "Miracle": Japan rapidly rebuilt its economy, becoming a major economic power by the 1970s. This was due to its historical foundations, US support, social cohesion, and demand created by the Korean and Vietnamese wars.
• Symbols of Success: The 1964 Tokyo Olympics and the launch of the Shinkansen (bullet trains) symbolized Japan's recovery and technological prowess.
• Civil Society Movements: In the 1960s, rapid industrialisation led to severe pollution problems like cadmium and mercury poisoning. Grass-roots pressure groups successfully demanded government action, leading to some of the strictest environmental controls in the world.

CHINA

The Challenge of Modernity

The modern history of China revolves around three key goals: regaining sovereignty, ending foreign humiliation, and achieving equality and development. Three main groups shaped the debates on how to achieve this:

1. Early Reformers: Like Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, who tried to use traditional ideas in new ways.
2. Republican Revolutionaries: Such as Sun Yat-sen, who were inspired by ideas from Japan and the West.
3. The Communist Party of China (CCP): Which aimed to end old inequalities and drive out foreigners.

China's encounter with the West began with Jesuit missionaries in the 16th-17th centuries, but the turning point was the First Opium War (1839-42). Britain used force to expand its opium trade, which severely undermined the Qing dynasty and strengthened calls for reform.

Failed Reforms and Growing Crisis

• Qing Reform Efforts: Qing reformers tried to build a modern administrative system, army, and educational system. They saw the negative examples of colonized countries like India and Poland and feared China would suffer the same fate.
• Rejection of Tradition: Many thinkers began to see traditional belief systems like Confucianism as a barrier to new ideas and progress.
• Abolition of the Examination System: In 1905, the centuries-old examination system for entry into the ruling class was abolished. It was seen as irrelevant to the modern world because it only demanded literary skills in classical Chinese.

Establishing the Republic

In 1911, the Manchu (Qing) empire was overthrown, and a republic was established under Sun Yat-sen, considered the founder of modern China.

1. Nationalism: Overthrowing the Manchus (seen as a foreign dynasty) and other foreign imperialists.
2. Democracy: Establishing a democratic government.
3. Socialism: Regulating capital and equalizing landholdings.

• The May Fourth Movement (1919): After World War I, the post-war peace conference decided not to return Chinese territories that had been seized. This sparked angry protests in Beijing on May 4, 1919, which grew into a nationwide movement. It inspired a generation to attack tradition and call for saving China through science, democracy, and nationalism.
• Guomindang (GMD) vs. CCP: After the revolution, China entered a period of turmoil. The Guomindang (the National People's Party) and the CCP emerged as the two main forces trying to unite the country.

The Guomindang Era

Under its leader Chiang Kai-shek, the GMD launched a military campaign to control regional warlords and eliminate the communists.

• Policies: Chiang Kai-shek sought to militarise the nation and promoted a conservative, "this-worldly" Confucianism. He encouraged women to cultivate the "four virtues" and confined their role to the household.
• Failures of the GMD:
  • Its social base was narrow and mostly in urban areas.
  • It ignored the peasantry and rising social inequalities.
  • It failed to carry out Sun Yat-sen's principle of equalizing land.
  • Rampant inflation destroyed the lives of ordinary people.

The Rise of the Communist Party of China (CCP)

Founded in 1921, the CCP was influenced by the Russian Revolution. While traditional Marxists believed revolution would come from the urban working class, Mao Zedong, a major CCP leader, took a different path.

• Mao's Peasant-Based Revolution: Mao based his revolutionary program on the peasantry. In the mountains of Jiangxi, the CCP organized a strong peasants' council (soviet), redistributing land and winning popular support.
• Social Reforms: Mao supported women's associations and introduced a new marriage law that forbade arranged marriages and simplified divorce.
• The Long March (1934-35): A GMD blockade forced the CCP to retreat from Jiangxi. They undertook a grueling 6,000-mile journey known as the Long March to a new base in Yanan. This epic journey solidified Mao's leadership and became a legendary moment in CCP history.
• Victory: During the long war against the Japanese invasion (starting in 1937), the CCP gained a strong social base by carrying out land reforms and fighting imperialism. After World War II ended, the civil war resumed, and the CCP defeated the GMD, establishing the People's Republic of China in 1949.

China Under Mao Zedong

• The New Democracy (1949-65): The new government was based on an alliance of all social classes. Key industries were put under government control, and private ownership of land was gradually ended.
• The Great Leap Forward (1958): This was a policy to rapidly industrialise the country. People were encouraged to set up backyard steel furnaces, and rural areas were organized into people's communes, where land was collectively owned and farmed. The policy was a massive failure, leading to famine, and the steel produced was unusable.
• The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (1965): To counter his critics within the party who valued expertise over ideology, Mao launched the Cultural Revolution. The Red Guards (mainly students and the army) were used to attack "old culture, old customs, and old habits." Professionals were sent to the countryside to "learn from the masses." This period caused severe disruption to the economy and educational system.

Reforms from 1978

After Mao's death in 1976, Deng Xiaoping emerged as the new leader. He kept strong party control but introduced major economic reforms.

• The Four Modernisations: In 1978, the Party declared its goal was to develop science, industry, agriculture, and defence.
• Socialist Market Economy: This policy opened China to economic liberalization and the world market while the CCP retained political control.
• Calls for Democracy: The new climate sparked calls for a "Fifth Modernisation" – Democracy. These demands were brutally suppressed during the Tiananmen Square protests in 1989.

Today, China is an economic powerhouse, but it faces challenges of growing social inequality and questions about how to develop while retaining its cultural heritage.

The Story of Taiwan

• When the CCP defeated the GMD in 1949, Chiang Kai-shek fled to the island of Taiwan and established the Republic of China.
• The GMD government was initially repressive, but it carried out land reforms and modernised the economy, making Taiwan a major economic success.
• After Chiang's death in 1975, Taiwan gradually transformed into a democracy.
• Taiwan is considered by mainland China to be part of its territory, so full diplomatic relations are not possible. However, economic relations between them are massive.

The Story of Korea

• Colonisation and Division: After being a Japanese colony from 1910 to 1945, Korea was divided at the 38th parallel after World War II. The North was managed by the Soviets and the South by the U.N. This division became permanent.
• The Korean War (1950-53): War broke out between the communist North (supported by China) and the South (supported by the US/UN). The war ended in an armistice, but Korea remained divided, and South Korea was left devastated and reliant on US aid.
• Authoritarian Rule and Economic Growth: South Korea was ruled by a series of military leaders, most notably General Park Chung-hee (1961-1979). His government adopted a state-led, export-oriented policy that produced startling economic growth, known as the "Miracle on the Han River." However, this came at the cost of democracy, as his Yusin Constitution gave him absolute power.
• The Path to Democracy: Popular desire for democracy grew. The Gwangju Democratisation Movement (1980) was brutally suppressed, but the massive, middle-class-supported June Democracy Movement (1987) finally forced the military government to allow direct presidential elections.
• The 1997 IMF Crisis: A foreign currency crisis in 1997 forced South Korea to seek a bailout from the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The country recovered through economic reforms and a citizen-led Gold Collection Movement to help repay foreign debt.
• Mature Democracy: Today, South Korea is a vibrant democracy, demonstrated by peaceful transfers of power and the massive, peaceful candlelight protests of 2016 that led to the impeachment of the president.

Two Roads to Modernisation: A Comparison

The histories of Japan and China show that there is no single path to becoming modern.

• Japan's Path:

  • Was elite-driven and successful in retaining its independence.
  • Creatively used traditional skills and institutions in new ways.
  • Generated an aggressive nationalism that led to a colonial empire and war.
  • Modernisation was carried out while imitating, yet also trying to find alternatives to, Western imperial powers.

• China's Path:

  • Was a response to foreign imperialism, which had weakened the state.
  • Involved a rejection of tradition, which was seen as a source of weakness.
  • The CCP built a highly centralised and repressive state to end inequalities and develop the country.
  • The Communist program offered hope but turned ideals of liberation into slogans to control the people.
  • Recent market reforms have made China economically powerful, but political control remains tight.