Key Points

Europeans established 'settler' colonies in America and Australia, where immigrants from Europe settled permanently. This was different from trading colonies, as it involved taking over land from native peoples for agriculture and residence.

The original inhabitants of North America lived in bands, subsisting on hunting, fishing, and cultivating vegetables. They viewed land as a common resource for all to use, not a commodity to be privately owned.

A major conflict arose from differing views on land. Europeans saw it as a commodity to be bought and sold for profit, while native peoples had a spiritual connection to it and did not believe in private ownership.

Initial interactions were based on trade, with Europeans seeking furs and fish in exchange for items like iron vessels and guns. However, the European concept of profit and the introduction of alcohol disrupted native societies.

In the United States of America, the 'frontier' was the term used for the westward-moving line of European settlement. As this frontier advanced, native peoples were consistently forced off their ancestral lands.

The United States government forcibly moved native tribes to designated areas called reservations. The most infamous example is the 'Trail of Tears,' the forced march of the Cherokee Nation, during which thousands died.

The California Gold Rush in the 1840s dramatically accelerated westward expansion. It led to the construction of transcontinental railways and rapid industrial growth, further displacing native communities.

The democratic rights and the 'right to property' outlined in the United States Constitution were primarily intended for white men. Native Americans were not considered citizens and were excluded from these protections.

Australia's indigenous peoples, known as Aborigines, have a history of over 40,000 years. Their culture is deeply tied to the land through the concept of 'Dreamtime', which integrates the past and present.

British settlement in Australia began in 1788 when it was established as a penal colony. Early settlers were convicts who, after serving their terms, often took over native lands for farming.

The British justified their claim to Australia with the legal concept of 'terra nullius', meaning 'land belonging to nobody'. This doctrine completely ignored the long-standing presence and land rights of the Aboriginal people.

Until 1974, Australia enforced a government policy to prevent non-white people from immigrating. This 'White Australia' policy was driven by the fear that Asian and other non-white migrants might arrive in large numbers.

In the 20th century, attitudes began to shift. The Indian Reorganisation Act of 1934 in the USA granted some rights to natives on reservations, and Canada recognized aboriginal rights in its 1982 Constitution Act.

From the 1970s, there was a growing movement in Australia to recognize its indigenous history. A key moment was W.E.H. Stanner's 1968 lecture on 'The Great Australian Silence', criticizing the omission of Aborigines from history.

In 1992, the Australian High Court's decision in the Mabo case overturned 'terra nullius'. It legally recognized that native peoples had claims to land from before the arrival of Europeans.

Established in 1999, 'A National Sorry Day' serves as a formal apology for the injustices done to indigenous children. It specifically addresses the 'Stolen Generations' of mixed-blood children who were forcibly removed from their families.