Chapter Notes

Introduction

The fabrics we use for clothing, furniture, and other household items are chosen for their appearance, quality, and function. To make sure these items last and continue to look good, proper care and maintenance are essential. This involves several key activities:

• Keeping the fabric free from physical damage like tears or holes.
• Retaining its original appearance by removing stains and dirt without fading the color.
• Maintaining or restoring its texture, whether it's softness, stiffness, or crispness.
• Managing wrinkles and creases by either removing them or adding them where desired.

Mending

Mending is the process of repairing damage that happens to fabrics during normal use or accidents. It is crucial to mend items before washing them, as the strain of laundering can make the damage much worse.

Key mending tasks include:

• Repairing cuts, tears, and holes.
• Replacing lost or broken buttons, fasteners, ribbons, or other attachments.
• Restitching seams and hems that have come undone.

Laundry

Laundering is the overall process of cleaning and finishing fabrics. It goes beyond simple washing and ironing to include special treatments that keep fabrics looking their best.

The complete laundry process includes:

1. Stain removal: Treating specific spots that won't come out in a normal wash.
2. Preparation: Mending and sorting fabrics before washing.
3. Washing: Removing dirt from the clothes.
4. Finishing: Using treatments like blueing (for whiteness) and starching (for stiffness) to restore appearance.
5. Pressing or Ironing: Smoothing out wrinkles for a neat look, ready for storage and use.

Stain Removal

A stain is an unwanted mark on a fabric caused by a foreign substance that cannot be removed by normal washing alone. To remove a stain correctly, you first need to identify it by its color, smell, and feel.

Types of Stains:

• Vegetable stains: Caused by tea, coffee, fruits, and vegetables. These are acidic and are best removed with an alkaline solution.
• Animal stains: Caused by blood, milk, meat, and eggs. These are protein-based and must be treated with cold water to avoid "setting" the stain.
• Oil stains: Caused by oil, ghee, and butter. These require grease solvents or absorbents.
• Mineral stains: Caused by ink, rust, and medicine. These often require a two-step process, first with an acidic medium and then an alkaline one.
• Dye bleeding: Color that has transferred from another fabric. This can be removed with dilute acids or alkalies, depending on the fabric.

General Rules for Stain Removal

• Act quickly: Stains are easiest to remove when they are fresh.
• Identify the stain: Use the right procedure for the specific type of stain.
• Start simple: For unknown stains, begin with the mildest method and only move to stronger ones if necessary.
• Be gentle: Repeated use of a mild chemical is safer for the fabric than one strong application.
• Wash after treatment: Always wash the fabric with a soapy solution after removing a stain to clear away any remaining chemicals.
• Use the sun: Sunlight is a natural bleach for white fabrics.
• Test first: On delicate fabrics, always test the chemical on a small, hidden area to ensure it doesn't cause damage.

Techniques and Reagents for Stain Removal

Techniques:

• Scraping: Gently removing built-up surface stains with a blunt knife.
• Dipping: Soaking and scrubbing the stained area in a cleaning reagent.
• Sponging: Placing the stain face down on a blotting paper and dabbing the reagent on with a sponge from the back.
• Drop Method: Stretching the stained fabric over a bowl and applying the reagent with a dropper.

Reagents (Stain Removers):

• Grease solvents: Turpentine, kerosene, petrol, methylated spirit.
• Grease absorbents: Fuller's earth, talcum powder, starch, French chalk.
• Emulsifiers: Soaps and detergents, which break down grease.
• Acidic reagents: Vinegar, oxalic acid, lemon, sour milk.
• Alkaline reagents: Ammonia, borax, baking soda.
• Bleaching agents:
  • Oxidising bleaches: Sunlight, sodium hypochlorite (javelle water), hydrogen peroxide.
  • Reducing bleaches: Sodium hydrosulphite.

Common Stains and How to Remove Them (from Cotton Fabric)

• Blood: For fresh stains, wash with cold water. For old stains, soak in salt solution, then rub and wash.
• Ballpoint pen: Place blotting paper underneath and sponge with methylated spirit.
• Candle wax: Scrape off excess wax. Place blotting paper on both sides of the stain and iron it. The paper will absorb the melted wax. Then wash with soap and water.
• Chewing gum: Harden with ice, scrape it off, and then sponge with a solvent.
• Chocolate: Scrape off excess, then wash with soap and lukewarm water. For stubborn stains, use a bleach like javelle water.
• Curry (Turmeric & oil): Wash with soap and water, then bleach in the sun.
• Egg: Scrape off excess, then wash with cold water and soap. Never use hot water first, as it will cook the egg protein.
• Grease/Oil: Sponge with a grease solvent like petrol or kerosene, then wash with hot water and soap. Alternatively, apply a paste of starch or Fuller's earth, let it dry, brush it off, and repeat if needed.
• Ink: For fresh stains, apply lemon juice, curd, or sour milk with salt and let it dry in the sun. Javelle water can also be effective.
• Lipstick: Sponge with methylated spirit or rub with glycerine, then wash with soap and water.
• Rust: Soak the stain in oxalic acid and rub, or treat it like an ink stain.
• Scorch: Sponge with hydrogen peroxide. If the fabric fibers are burnt and damaged, the stain cannot be removed.

Removal of Dirt - The Cleaning Process

Dirt refers to the grease, grime, and dust trapped in a fabric's structure. There are two types:

1. Loose dirt: Can be easily removed by brushing, shaking, or soaking in water.
2. Tightly held dirt: Is bound to the fabric by sweat and grease and requires cleaning agents to loosen it.

The Role of Water, Soaps, and Detergents

• Water: Water is the primary agent in laundry. It penetrates the fabric, and the movement of its particles (pedesis) helps dislodge non-greasy dirt. Hot water is more effective as it increases this movement. However, water alone cannot remove grease and can't keep dirt suspended, which often leads to it being redeposited on the fabric, causing grayness over time.

• Soaps and Detergents: These are the most important cleaning agents. Both are surfactants, meaning they reduce the surface tension of water. This allows water to soak into clothes more easily and lift dirt away. They also keep the removed dirt suspended in the wash water, preventing it from settling back onto the clothes.

Soaps vs. Detergents

• Soaps are natural products made from fats and alkali. They are biodegradable and gentler on the skin and the environment. However, they don't work well in hard water and are generally less powerful than detergents.
• Detergents are synthetic chemicals. They are powerful, work well in hard water, and can be engineered for specific cleaning tasks and washing machines.

Methods of Washing

The washing method you choose depends on the fabric's strength, construction, and level of soiling.

• Friction: This is the most common method, suitable for strong fabrics like cotton. It involves rubbing the fabric against itself, a brush, or a scrubbing board to dislodge dirt. It should not be used on delicate fabrics like silk and wool.
• Kneading and Squeezing: This gentle method involves rubbing the article with your hands in a soap solution. It's ideal for delicate fabrics like wool, silk, and rayon because it doesn't damage the texture or color. It is not effective for heavily soiled clothes.
• Suction: This method uses a suction washer (a plunger-like tool) pressed up and down on an article in a tub of soapy water. The vacuum created helps pull dirt out. It's useful for heavy items like towels that can't be scrubbed with a brush.
• Machine Washing: Washing machines save labor by creating agitation to loosen dirt. The movement of the tub or a central agitator provides the necessary pressure. Machines can be manual, semi-automatic, or fully automatic.

Finishing

After washing and rinsing thoroughly to remove all soap, fabrics often need finishing treatments to restore their brightness, texture, and shape.

Blues and Optical Brighteners

Over time, white cotton fabrics can turn yellow, while synthetics tend to look gray.

• Blues: Used to counteract the yellowness in white cottons, making them appear whiter. Blueing is added to the final rinse. It is available as a powder (ultramarine blue) or a liquid.
• Optical Brightening Agents: These are fluorescent compounds that absorb invisible light and re-emit it as visible light, making fabrics look intensely white and bright. They can counteract both yellowness and grayness and can be used on synthetics and colored fabrics.

Starches and Stiffening Agents

Repeated washing can make fabrics lose their body and shine. Starching is used to make fabric firm, smooth, and crisp. It also creates a protective layer that prevents dirt from clinging directly to the fabric, making future washes easier.

Common Stiffening Agents:

• Starch: Derived from rice, wheat (maida), or arrowroot. It's cooked before use and is mainly for cotton and linen.
• Gum Acacia (Gum Arabic): A natural gum that provides light crispness. It's used for fine cottons, silks, and rayons.
• Borax: Added to starch solution, it melts during ironing to form a thin, water-repellent film that helps maintain crispness in humid weather.

Application: Starch solution should be applied to a thoroughly wet fabric. Knead the fabric in the solution, squeeze out the excess, and then dry it. For dark-colored cottons, a little blue or tea can be added to the starch to prevent white patches.

Drying

• Sunlight: The best way to dry white fabrics is in the sun, which acts as a natural disinfectant and bleach.
• Shade/Indoors: Delicate fabrics like silk and wool, as well as synthetics, should be dried indoors or in the shade. Strong sunlight can damage these fibers, causing them to weaken or turn yellow permanently.

Ironing

Ironing removes wrinkles and adds desired creases using a combination of high temperature, moisture, and pressure.

• Temperature: An electric iron is best because its temperature can be controlled to suit different fabrics. A charcoal iron is cheaper but offers no temperature control and can stain clothes.
• Moisture: Ironing is most effective when clothes are still slightly damp. If clothes are dry, you can sprinkle or spray them with water before ironing.
• Pressure: This is applied by moving the iron over the fabric. For most clothes, the iron is moved along the length of the fabric. For delicate items like lace, pressing is used instead of ironing. Pressing involves placing the hot iron on one spot, lifting it, and then placing it on the next spot to avoid stretching the fabric.

Dry-cleaning

Dry-cleaning is the process of cleaning fabrics using a non-aqueous liquid solvent, such as perchloro-ethylene.

Dry-cleaning is typically done at a professional establishment where items are inspected, stains are pre-treated (a process called "spotting"), and then cleaned in specialized machines.

Storage of Textile Products

Proper storage is necessary to protect clothes, especially those that are put away for a season. Before storing, all items must be clean, dry, and mended.

• Woolens: Should be brushed well or dry-cleaned to remove all dirt.
• Preparation: Empty pockets, brush away dust, and ensure all stains are removed.
• Packing: Pack clothes loosely in clean, dry, and insect-free cupboards or trunks. Packing too tightly can cause permanent creases. The storage area should have very low humidity to prevent mildew.

Factors Affecting Fabric Care

The right way to care for a fabric depends on its fiber content, yarn structure, fabric construction, color, and any finishes applied to it.

Fibre Properties and Care Requirements

• Cotton & Linen:

  • Properties: Strong fibers that get even stronger when wet. Can withstand high temperatures and strong alkaline detergents. Prone to wrinkling and mildew.
  • Care: Can be washed vigorously and boiled if necessary. Needs to be ironed while damp. Must be stored completely dry.

• Wool:

  • Properties: A weak fiber that weakens further when wet. Damaged by alkaline detergents. Tends to felt and shrink with agitation. Susceptible to moths.
  • Care: Handle gently during washing. Use mild detergents in cold water. Dry-cleaning is often recommended. Store with naphthalene balls to prevent insect damage.

• Silk:

  • Properties: A strong fiber that is weaker when wet. Damaged by strong alkalis and sunlight. Scorches easily at high temperatures.
  • Care: Wash gently with mild detergents. Iron at a low temperature while damp. Dry in the shade.

• Rayon:

  • Properties: Low strength, which decreases when wet. Wrinkles easily and can shrink. Susceptible to mildew and silverfish.
  • Care: Requires careful handling during laundering. Use mild soaps. Store in a clean, dry place.

• Nylon:

  • Properties: Very strong, even when wet. Dries quickly. Damaged by sunlight. Can absorb dirt from other articles in the wash.
  • Care: Requires little special care but should be washed separately. Not recommended for curtains due to sun damage.

• Polyester:

  • Properties: Strong, doesn't wrinkle easily. Does not absorb water, which can make it feel uncomfortable in hot weather. Oily stains are very difficult to remove.
  • Care: Easy to wash. Use low heat for ironing. Treat oily stains carefully.

• Acrylic:

  • Properties: Strong, resistant to wrinkles, sunlight, and moths. Dries quickly. Catches fire easily and continues to burn and melt.
  • Care: Easy to wash. Be extremely careful around heat and flames.

Other Factors

• Yarn Structure: Yarns with a high twist may shrink, while novelty yarns can snag easily.
• Fabric Construction: Tightly woven fabrics are easy to maintain. Loosely woven fabrics, knits, or those with long floats (like satin) can snag or stretch out of shape.
• Colour and Finishes: Dyed or printed fabrics may bleed color, so they should be washed separately. Some finishes, like water repellency, may need to be renewed after washing.

Care Label

A care label is a permanent tag on a garment that provides instructions for its regular care. Following these instructions helps maintain the product's appearance and prolong its life. These labels use symbols and text to give information on:

• Washing: Temperature (cold, warm, hot), cycle (delicate), and method (hand wash, machine wash).
• Drying: Method (tumble dry, line dry, dry flat).
• Ironing: Temperature setting (low, moderate, hot).
• Bleaching: Whether chlorine bleach can be used.
• Dry-cleaning: If it's required and which solvents can be used.

Key Terms

• Mending: Repairing damage to fabrics.
• Laundry: The complete process of washing and finishing fabrics.
• Stain Removal: Using special treatments to remove unwanted marks.
• Water, Soaps and Detergents: The primary agents used for cleaning fabrics.
• Dry-cleaning: Cleaning fabrics with a non-aqueous solvent.
• Friction, Suction, Kneading and squeezing: Different manual methods of washing.
• Blues and Starches: Finishing agents used to improve the appearance and texture of fabrics.
• Care label: A tag with instructions for fabric care.