Key Points

Sociology requires a special terminology because its subject matter is familiar, and common-sense words are often imprecise. Specific concepts allow for a clear and precise analysis of social institutions, distinct from everyday understanding.

Sociology has diverse perspectives. For Karl Marx, class and conflict were key concepts, while for Emile Durkheim, social solidarity and collective conscience were central. Functionalists view society as harmonious, whereas conflict theorists see it as conflict-ridden.

A social group is a collection of people who interact continuously, share common interests and values, have a sense of belonging, and possess a definable structure. It is more than just a gathering of people.

An aggregate is a collection of people in the same place at the same time without connection, like a cinema audience. A quasi-group is an aggregate that lacks structure, but its members may develop a sense of group identity over time, like social classes or age groups.

Primary groups are small and characterized by intimate, face-to-face relationships, like family and friends. Secondary groups are larger, more formal, and impersonal, often formed to achieve a specific goal, like schools or government offices.

The term 'community' refers to social relationships that are personal, intimate, and enduring, typical of traditional life. 'Society' or 'association' refers to the impersonal, superficial, and goal-oriented relationships found in modern urban life.

An in-group is a group to which an individual feels a sense of belonging, creating a 'we' feeling. An out-group is a group to which an individual does not belong, often perceived as 'they' and can face hostility from the in-group.

A reference group is a group that individuals look up to and whose lifestyles they emulate. People do not belong to their reference groups but identify with them, using them as a source for aspirations and goals.

A peer group is a type of primary group formed between individuals of a similar age or professional background. Peer pressure is the social influence exerted by this group on its members to conform to its expectations.

Social stratification is the existence of structured inequalities between groups in society in terms of their access to material or symbolic rewards. It arranges society into a hierarchy of layers or 'strata'.

The caste system is a form of social stratification where an individual's position is determined by birth (ascribed status). It is a rigid hierarchy traditionally based on concepts of purity and pollution.

The class system is a form of stratification based primarily on economic position. Karl Marx defined class by its relationship to the means of production, while Max Weber emphasized 'life chances' based on market capacity, prestige, and power.

Status is a social position a person occupies, with defined rights and duties (e.g., student, doctor). Role is the dynamic or behavioral aspect of a status; it is what a person does in that position.

Ascribed status is a social position assigned at birth or involuntarily, such as caste, race, or age. Achieved status is a position acquired through personal choice, ability, and effort, such as educational qualifications or profession.

Role conflict occurs when there are incompatible expectations arising from two or more roles held by the same person, such as a working mother. Role stereotyping is the process of reinforcing specific, often rigid, roles for certain members of society, like men as breadwinners.

Social control refers to the various means used by a society to regulate the behavior of its members and bring them into line with its norms and values. It aims to maintain social order.

Formal social control is exercised through codified, systematic mechanisms like law, the police, and the state. Informal social control is personal and unofficial, using means like smiles, ridicule, and criticism by family, friends, and the community.

Sanctions are modes of reward (positive) or punishment (negative) that reinforce socially expected behavior. Deviance refers to actions that do not conform to the norms or values held by most members of a group or society.