SecularismClass 11 Political Theory Notes

What is Secularism?

Secularism is a concept that addresses how a democratic state can ensure equality for different cultures and communities living within the same country. In India, while secularism is a constant topic of public discussion, it is also a source of debate and doubt.

The need for secularism is highlighted by examples of religious discrimination worldwide and within India.

• Globally, Arab minorities in Israel and non-Christians in parts of Europe face discrimination. The condition of religious minorities in neighboring countries like Pakistan and Bangladesh is also a major concern.
• Within India, despite constitutional guarantees of freedom and dignity, severe instances of religious persecution have occurred.

1. The massacre of over 2,700 Sikhs in Delhi and other areas in 1984.
2. Thousands of Hindu Kashmiri pandits being forced to leave their homes in the Kashmir valley.
3. The killing of more than 1,000 people in the post-Godhra riots in Gujarat in 2002. In each case, members of one religious community were targeted because of their identity, denying them their basic freedoms.

Secularism is a doctrine that opposes such forms of domination. It has two equally important dimensions: opposition to domination between religious groups and opposition to domination within a single religious group.

Inter-religious Domination

Inter-religious domination occurs when one religious community targets, discriminates against, or victimizes another. The examples of the anti-Sikh massacre, the exodus of Kashmiri Pandits, and the Gujarat riots all reflect this form of domination. Secularism's first and foremost goal is to oppose all such forms of institutionalized religious persecution.

Intra-religious Domination

Intra-religious domination refers to oppression and inequality within a particular religion. Secularism is not anti-religious; it acknowledges that religion, art, and philosophy are natural human responses to suffering. However, it also recognizes that organized religion can have deep-rooted problems.

Key issues within religions that secularism challenges include:

• Gender Inequality: Many religions do not treat their male and female members equally. For instance, in some parts of India, Hindu women are barred from entering temples.
• Caste Discrimination: In Hinduism, sections like Dalits have faced persistent discrimination, such as being barred from entering temples.
• Intolerance to Dissent: Organized religions are often controlled by conservative factions that suppress dissent, leading to sectarian violence and persecution of minorities within the religion itself.

Secular State

To prevent religious discrimination and conflict, the role of the state is crucial. While education and individual acts of kindness are helpful, the enormous public power of the modern state makes its structure and function essential for promoting religious harmony.

A state committed to secularism must have certain characteristics:

1. It must not be a theocratic state: A theocratic state is one governed directly by a priestly order, like the Papal states in medieval Europe or the Taliban-controlled state. Such states are known for oppression and for denying freedom to other religious groups. Therefore, for peace, freedom, and equality, religious and state institutions must be separated.
2. It must not have an official state religion: Simply being non-theocratic is not enough. Many states, while not run by priests, have a formal alliance with a particular religion. For example, England had an established Anglican religion, and today Pakistan has an official state religion, Sunni Islam. Such alliances can limit religious equality.
3. It must be committed to non-religious goals: A truly secular state must be committed to principles like peace, religious freedom, and inter- and intra-religious equality. These goals are derived from non-religious sources.

The way a state separates itself from religion can vary. The two main models discussed are the Western (American) model and the Indian model.

The Western Model of Secularism

The most common model of secularism, inspired by the American system, is based on the principle of mutual exclusion. This means the state and religion operate in completely separate spheres and do not interfere with each other's affairs.

Key features of the Western model include:

• Strict Separation: The state does not intervene in religious affairs, and religion does not interfere in the affairs of the state. State policies cannot have a purely religious justification.
• No State Aid to Religion: The state cannot provide financial support to educational institutions run by religious communities.
• Religion as a Private Matter: Religion is considered a personal choice and not a matter of state policy or law. The state remains a "silent witness" even if a religious institution excommunicates dissenters or bars certain members from its temples.
• Individualistic Focus: This model views freedom and equality primarily in terms of individuals. It has little scope for community-based or minority rights. This focus developed because most Western societies were religiously homogeneous, so their main concern was preventing domination within the dominant church (intra-religious domination).
• No State-Supported Religious Reform: Because of the strict separation, the state cannot support or initiate reforms within any religion.

The Indian Model of Secularism

Indian secularism is fundamentally different from the Western model. It is not a simple imitation but a unique concept that evolved from India's specific social and historical context.

The distinctiveness of Indian secularism arises from several factors:

• Deep Religious Diversity: Unlike the West, India has a long history of deep religious diversity that existed even before modern Western ideas arrived. There was already a culture of inter-religious "tolerance," though tolerance alone is not enough to ensure equal dignity and respect.
• Focus on Both Forms of Domination: Indian secularism emerged from the interaction between India's diverse traditions and Western ideas of equality. As a result, it gives equal importance to combating both inter-religious domination (threats from the majority to minority communities) and intra-religious domination (oppression of Dalits and women within Hinduism, or discrimination against women in Indian Islam or Christianity).
• Protection of Both Individual and Community Rights: A second key difference is that Indian secularism protects the religious freedom of both individuals and minority communities. An individual has the right to profess their religion, and religious minorities have the right to exist, maintain their culture, and run their own educational institutions.
• State-Supported Religious Reform: A third major difference is that Indian secularism allows for principled state intervention in religious matters to bring about social reform.

• The constitutional ban on untouchability.
• Laws abolishing child marriage and lifting the taboo on inter-caste marriage, which were sanctioned by Hinduism.

The Indian state remains secular because it is not theocratic and has no established state religion. Beyond this, it follows a sophisticated policy of maintaining a principled distance from religion. This means the state can choose to disengage from religion (like the American model) or engage with it when necessary to promote values of peace, freedom, and equality. This engagement can be negative (to oppose oppression) or positive (to assist minority institutions).

Criticisms of Indian Secularism

Indian secularism faces several major criticisms. Here are the most common ones and the arguments used to defend the concept.

Anti-religious

• Criticism: Secularism is anti-religious and threatens religious identity.
• Defense: Secularism is not against religion itself but against institutionalised religious domination. It promotes religious freedom and equality, thereby protecting religious identity. It only undermines forms of religious identity that are dogmatic, violent, fanatical, or foster hatred of other religions.

Western Import

• Criticism: Secularism is a Western concept and therefore unsuited to India.
• Defense: While the idea of church-state separation has Western origins, Indian secularism is not a simple copy. It evolved uniquely in India, where the idea of peaceful coexistence among different religious communities has always been important. Therefore, Indian secularism has both Western and non-Western origins, making it suitable for the Indian context.

Minoritism

• Criticism: Secularism is biased towards minorities and promotes "minoritism" by granting them special privileges.
• Defense: Minority rights are not "special privileges" but essential protections for their fundamental interests, which might be overlooked or harmed by a majority decision. These rights ensure that minorities are treated with the same respect and dignity as everyone else.

Interventionist

• Criticism: Secularism is coercive because it interferes excessively with the religious freedom of communities.
• Defense: Indian secularism rejects a policy of total non-interference, but it is not excessively interventionist. It follows the concept of principled distance, which allows for non-interference as well. When the state does intervene for religious reform, it is not meant to be a coercive change imposed from above. The state should act as a facilitator, supporting liberal and democratic voices within each religion. The debate over reforming personal laws (governing marriage, inheritance, etc.) reflects this complex balance between protecting minority rights and ensuring gender equality.

Vote Bank Politics

• Criticism: Secularism encourages vote bank politics, where politicians appeal to religious groups for votes, often leading to minority appeasement.
• Defense: In a democracy, politicians seeking votes is normal. The real issue is the purpose of seeking those votes. If politicians secure minority votes and, in return, deliver benefits that protect their interests, it is a success of the secular project. The problem arises when this is done at the expense of other groups, or when it distorts politics by focusing on emotive issues instead of genuine development, leading to further social division and alienation.

Impossible Project

• Criticism: Secularism is an impossible project because people with deep religious differences can never live together peacefully and equally.
• Defense: This claim is empirically false. India's history, along with examples like the Ottoman Empire, shows that peaceful coexistence is possible. Today, as globalization and migration make societies in Europe and America more diverse, they are beginning to resemble India. These societies are watching India's great experiment in secularism with keen interest, as it may hold the key to the future of diverse societies worldwide.