Methods of Enquiry in PsychologyClass 11 Psychology NCERT Solutions
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Q1Review Questions
What are the goals of scientific enquiry?
Solution
According to the chapter, psychological enquiry, like any scientific research, has the following goals:
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Description: This involves describing a behaviour or a phenomenon as accurately as possible. It helps in distinguishing one particular behaviour from others. For example, a researcher might describe the study habits of students by recording behaviours like attending classes, submitting assignments, and planning study schedules.
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Prediction: This goal involves forecasting behaviour. If a researcher can understand and describe a behaviour accurately, they can determine its relationship with other events and predict its occurrence under certain conditions. For example, a positive relationship between study time and academic achievement allows one to predict that a student who studies more is likely to get good marks.
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Explanation: This goal aims to identify the causal factors or determinants of behaviour. It seeks to understand the conditions under which a behaviour occurs and does not occur, establishing a cause-effect relationship. For example, a psychologist might try to explain what makes some children more attentive in class than others.
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Control: This involves making a particular behaviour happen, reducing it, or enhancing it by making changes in its antecedent conditions. For example, by controlling the number of hours devoted to study, one can influence academic performance. Psychological therapies are a good example of control, as they aim to bring about changes in behaviour.
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Application: The final goal is to use the knowledge generated to bring about positive changes in people's lives. Psychological research is conducted to solve problems in various settings and improve the quality of life. For instance, applying knowledge of yoga and meditation helps reduce stress.
Q2Review Questions
Describe the various steps involved in conducting a scientific enquiry.
Solution
The scientific method follows a systematic procedure for investigation. The steps involved in conducting a scientific enquiry are as follows:
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Conceptualising a Problem: The research process begins when a researcher selects a topic for study. This is followed by narrowing down the focus and developing specific research questions. Based on a review of past research, observations, or personal experiences, the researcher develops a tentative answer to the problem, which is called a hypothesis. For example, a researcher might form the hypothesis: 'Greater is the amount of time spent by children in viewing violence on television, higher is the degree of aggression displayed by them'.
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Collecting Data: This step requires developing a research design or a blueprint for the entire study. It involves making decisions about:
- Participants: Who will be studied (e.g., children, college students, patients).
- Methods of data collection: Which method to use (e.g., observation, experimental, survey).
- Tools to be used: Which tools are appropriate (e.g., interview schedule, questionnaire).
- Procedure: How the tools will be administered (e.g., individually or in a group). This is followed by the actual collection of data.
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Drawing Conclusions: After collecting the data, it is analysed using statistical procedures to understand its meaning. This can involve graphical representations (like bar diagrams) and statistical methods to verify the hypothesis and draw conclusions.
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Revising Research Conclusions: The researcher evaluates whether the conclusions support the initial hypothesis. If they do, the existing theory is confirmed. If not, the researcher will revise or state an alternative hypothesis or theory and test it again with new data. This shows that research is a continuous process.
Q3Review Questions
Explain the nature of psychological data.
Solution
The information collected in psychological studies is called data. The nature of psychological data is unique and has several key characteristics:
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Variety of Information: Psychologists collect a variety of information from different sources. This data can relate to an individual's covert (mental processes) or overt (observable) behaviour, subjective experiences, and physiological responses.
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Context-Dependent: Data is not independent of the context in which it is collected. A person's behaviour can differ depending on the physical or social context (e.g., being alone versus in a group, at home versus in an office). The persons involved and the time of the behaviour also influence the data.
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Tied to Method and Theory: The nature and quality of data are influenced by the method of data collection used (e.g., survey, interview, experiment) and the characteristics of the respondents (e.g., age, gender, culture). Data is not an independent entity but is tied to the theory that governs the research process.
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Requires Interpretation: Data does not speak for itself; it needs to be interpreted. A researcher attaches meaning to the data by placing it in its proper context and making inferences from it.
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Types of Data: In psychology, different types of data are collected:
- Demographic Information: Personal information like name, age, gender, education, occupation, etc.
- Physical Information: Information about ecological conditions, housing, facilities available, etc.
- Physiological Data: Data on height, weight, heart rate, blood pressure, brain activity (EEG), etc.
- Psychological Information: Information related to intelligence, personality, interests, values, emotions, subjective experiences, etc.
Q4Review Questions
How do experimental and control groups differ? Explain with the help of an example.
Solution
In an experiment, the experimental group and the control group are two distinct groups of participants used to establish a cause-effect relationship between an independent and a dependent variable.
Differences:
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Experimental Group: This is the group in which the members are exposed to the manipulation of the independent variable. The researcher introduces a change or treatment to this group to observe its effect.
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Control Group: This is a comparison group that is treated in every way like the experimental group except that the manipulated independent variable is absent. It serves as a baseline against which the effect on the experimental group can be measured.
In a well-designed experiment, all other conditions (extraneous variables) are kept constant for both groups to ensure that any difference in the outcome (dependent variable) is due to the manipulation of the independent variable and not some other factor.
Example from the chapter:
The study by Latane and Darley on reporting emergencies illustrates the difference. Their goal was to see if the presence of other people affects an individual's likelihood of reporting an emergency (smoke filling a room).
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Control Group: Participants were in a waiting room alone. When smoke started filling the room, 75 percent of them reported the emergency. This group was not exposed to the independent variable (presence of other people).
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Experimental Groups:
- In one experimental group, the participant was in the room with two other naïve participants. Here, only 38 percent reported the smoke.
- In another experimental group, the participant was with two confederates (actors) who were instructed by the researchers to do nothing. In this case, only 10 percent of participants reported the smoke.
By comparing the reporting rates of the experimental groups to the control group, the researchers could conclude that the presence of other people (the independent variable) significantly reduced the likelihood of an individual reporting an emergency (the dependent variable).
Q5Review Questions
A researcher is studying the relationship between speed of cycling and the presence of people. Formulate a relevant hypothesis and identify the independent and dependent variables.
Solution
Based on the research problem, we can formulate a hypothesis and identify the variables as follows:
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Hypothesis: A relevant hypothesis would be: "A cyclist performs better when cycling before a group of persons than when cycling alone." This is a tentative statement that proposes a relationship between the two variables, which can then be tested.
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Independent Variable: The independent variable is the one that is manipulated or altered by the researcher to see its effect. In this study, the independent variable is the presence or absence of people. The researcher would create at least two conditions: one where the cyclist rides alone, and another where the cyclist rides in the presence of an audience.
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Dependent Variable: The dependent variable is the behaviour that is measured to see if it changes as a result of manipulating the independent variable. In this study, the dependent variable is the speed of cycling. The researcher would measure the cyclist's speed in both conditions (alone vs. in front of people) to see if there is a difference.
Q6Review Questions
Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of experimental method as a method of enquiry.
Solution
The experimental method is a powerful tool for psychological enquiry, but it has both strengths and weaknesses.
Strengths:
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Establishes Cause-Effect Relationship: The primary strength of a well-designed experiment is its ability to provide convincing evidence of a cause-and-effect relationship between two or more variables. By manipulating the independent variable and controlling extraneous variables, a researcher can confidently conclude that changes in the dependent variable are caused by the independent variable.
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Control over Variables: Experiments allow for a high degree of control over extraneous variables that might otherwise influence the results. This control helps to isolate the effect of the independent variable, leading to more precise and objective conclusions.
Weaknesses:
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Low External Validity: Experiments are often conducted in highly controlled, artificial laboratory settings. While this control is a strength, it also means that the findings may not generalise well to real-life situations. The behaviour observed in a lab might not be the same as behaviour in the natural world.
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Not Always Feasible: It is not always possible or ethical to study certain problems experimentally. For example, a researcher cannot conduct an experiment to study the effect of nutritional deficiency on intelligence by deliberately starving children, as it would be ethically wrong.
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Difficulty in Controlling All Variables: It is extremely difficult to know and control all the relevant variables that could affect the outcome of an experiment. There may be subtle organismic variables (like anxiety or motivation) or situational variables that the researcher is unaware of, which could influence the dependent variable.
Q7Review Questions
Dr. Krishnan is going to observe and record children's play behaviour at a nursery school without attempting to influence or control the behaviour. Which method of research is involved? Explain the process and discuss its merits and demerits.
Solution
The method of research involved in this scenario is the Observational Method, specifically Naturalistic Observation.
This is because the observation is being done in a natural, real-life setting (a nursery school), and the researcher, Dr. Krishnan, is not making any effort to control or manipulate the situation. S/he is simply observing and recording the behaviour as it naturally occurs.
The Process of Observation:
A scientific observation like this involves three key steps:
- Selection: The researcher selects a particular behaviour for observation. In this case, Dr. Krishnan has selected 'children's play behaviour'.
- Recording: While observing, the researcher records the selected behaviour using different means, such as taking detailed notes, using checklists, making video recordings, or taking photographs.
- Analysis of Data: After the observations have been recorded, the researcher analyses the data to derive meaning from it. This involves identifying patterns and drawing conclusions about the observed behaviour.
Merits of the Observational Method:
- The primary advantage is that it enables the researcher to study people and their behaviour in a naturalistic situation, as it occurs. This provides a realistic picture of behaviour that might not be obtainable in an artificial laboratory setting.
Demerits of the Observational Method:
- Labour Intensive and Time Consuming: Conducting systematic observations can require a significant amount of time and effort.
- Observer's Bias: The observation can be susceptible to the observer's personal biases. Our values and beliefs can influence what we notice and how we interpret it. The saying "We see things as we are and not as things are" highlights this problem.
- Reactivity: The very presence of an observer (even if non-participant) can bring about a change in the behaviour of the people being observed, which can affect the validity of the findings.
Q8Review Questions
Give two examples of the situations where survey method can be used. What are the limitations of this method?
Solution
The survey method is used to study opinions, attitudes, and social facts by collecting information from a sample of people.
Two Examples of Situations for Survey Method:
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Political Opinion Polls: During elections, surveys are widely used to find out public opinion. For example, a survey can be conducted to determine which political party people are likely to vote for, or to gauge public attitude towards a particular candidate or government policy.
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Studying Social Attitudes: Surveys can be used to understand the attitudes of a population towards social issues. For instance, a researcher could conduct a survey to study students' attitudes towards the privatisation of education or to find out people's opinions on family planning methods.
Limitations of the Survey Method:
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Inaccurate Information: People may provide inaccurate information. This can happen due to memory lapses, or because they do not want the researcher to know what they really believe about a particular issue. They might give socially desirable answers rather than truthful ones.
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Response Bias: People sometimes offer responses they think the researcher wants to hear. This can lead to biased results that do not reflect the true opinions or behaviours of the respondents.
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Poor Response Rate: When surveys are conducted through mail or telephone, there can be a poor response rate. Furthermore, the people who do respond may differ significantly from those who do not, leading to a non-representative sample and biased findings.
Q9Review Questions
Differentiate between an interview and a questionnaire.
Solution
Both interviews and questionnaires are techniques used in survey research to collect information, but they differ in their format, administration, and flexibility.
| Feature | Interview | Questionnaire |
|---|---|---|
| Mode of Administration | Conducted verbally, either face-to-face or over the telephone. The interviewer asks questions and records the respondent's answers. | A self-report method where the respondent reads a predetermined set of questions and writes down the answers on paper. |
| Flexibility | Highly flexible, especially in unstructured interviews. The interviewer can change the wording or order of questions, probe for more information, and clarify doubts. | Generally rigid and structured. The questions are predetermined, and there is no opportunity for the respondent to ask for clarification or for the researcher to probe for deeper answers. |
| Respondent Literacy | Can be used with all types of respondents, including those who are non-literate, as the questions are asked orally. | Requires the respondent to be literate, as they must be able to read the questions and write the answers. |
| Depth of Information | Helps in obtaining in-depth and rich information. The interviewer can observe non-verbal cues and explore complex issues in detail. | Tends to gather more superficial information. It is less suitable for exploring complex feelings or experiences in detail. |
| Cost and Time | Generally more time-consuming and expensive, as it often involves one-on-one interaction and requires trained interviewers. | A low-cost and efficient method for collecting information from a large number of people simultaneously. |
| Researcher's Presence | The interviewer is present during the data collection process. | The researcher is typically not present when the respondent is filling out the questionnaire. |
Q10Review Questions
Explain the characteristics of a standardised test.
Solution
A standardised psychological test is an objective instrument used to assess an individual's standing in relation to others on some mental or behavioural characteristic. Its key characteristics are objectivity, standardisation (norms), reliability, and validity.
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Objectivity: This refers to the fact that if two or more researchers administer the test on the same group of people, they would arrive at more or less the same values for each person. Objectivity is ensured through clearly worded items, specified instructions, uniform administration procedures (e.g., time limit, environment), and a defined scoring system.
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Standardisation and Norms: A test becomes standardised when norms are developed for it. Norms represent the normal or average performance of a particular group. To develop norms, the test is administered to a large, representative sample of people. Their average performance standards are set based on factors like age, sex, etc. This allows for the comparison of an individual's score with the performance of the group, helping in the interpretation of the score.
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Reliability: This refers to the consistency of scores obtained by an individual on the same test on different occasions. A reliable test should produce similar results over time. There are two main types of reliability:
- Test-retest reliability: Measures the stability of scores over time by administering the test to the same group on two different occasions.
- Split-half reliability: Measures the internal consistency of the test by dividing it into two halves (e.g., odd and even items) and correlating the scores on the two halves.
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Validity: This is the most crucial characteristic and refers to the question: "Does the test measure what it claims to measure?" For a test to be valid, it must accurately measure the characteristic it was designed to assess. For example, a test of mathematical achievement should measure mathematical ability, not language proficiency.
Q11Review Questions
Describe the limitations of psychological enquiry.
Solution
Psychological enquiry, despite its scientific approach, faces certain general limitations that are important to consider:
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Lack of True Zero Point: In physical sciences, measurements start from a true zero (e.g., 0 cm length). Psychological measurements, however, lack a true zero point. For example, no person has zero intelligence. Psychologists arbitrarily decide a point as zero and proceed from there. This means that psychological scores are not absolute; they are relative in nature. For example, the difference between IQ scores of 100 and 110 may not be the same as the difference between 110 and 120.
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Relative Nature of Psychological Tools: Psychological tests and tools are developed within a specific context. A test developed for urban students may not be suitable for tribal students because the items might demand familiarity with stimuli specific to an urban setting (e.g., metro railway, multistoried buildings). Similarly, tests developed in Western countries may not be applicable in the Indian context without proper modification and adaptation. The tools are culture- and context-specific.
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Subjective Interpretation of Qualitative Data: Data collected from qualitative studies (like interviews or case studies) are largely subjective. They involve interpretation on the part of the researcher as well as the person providing the data. Different researchers might interpret the same narrative or observation differently. To mitigate this, it is often suggested that fieldwork should be done by more than one investigator who can cross-check their interpretations to arrive at an agreement.
Q12Review Questions
What are the ethical guidelines that a psychologist needs to follow while conducting a psychological enquiry?
Solution
Since psychological research involves human beings, it is essential for researchers to follow certain ethical principles to protect the rights and well-being of the participants. The key ethical guidelines are:
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Voluntary Participation: Participants must have the choice to decide whether or not to participate in the study. This decision should be made freely, without any coercion or excessive inducement. They must also have the freedom to withdraw from the research at any point without penalty.
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Informed Consent: Potential participants must receive complete information about the nature of the study, what will happen to them, and any potential risks or discomforts before they agree to participate. This allows them to make an informed decision. If deception is used (which should be avoided if possible), it must be justified, and participants must be informed about it later.
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Debriefing: After the study is over, participants must be provided with necessary information to complete their understanding of the research. This is especially important if deception was used. Debriefing aims to ensure that participants leave the study in the same physical and mental state as when they entered. The researcher should remove any anxiety or adverse effects that the study might have caused.
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Sharing the Results of the Study: It is the researcher's moral duty to go back to the participants and share the results of the study with them. This fulfills the expectations of the participants and can also provide the researcher with new insights based on the participants' feedback on the findings.
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Confidentiality of Data Source: Participants have a right to privacy. The researcher must safeguard their privacy by keeping the information they provide in strict confidence. The information should be used only for research purposes. To ensure confidentiality, identities should not be recorded, or if necessary, code numbers should be used, with the identification list being destroyed after the research is over.