What is Psychology?Class 11 Psychology NCERT Solutions
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Q1Review Questions
What is behaviour? Give examples of overt and covert behaviour.
Solution
Behaviour refers to the responses or reactions we make or the activities we engage in. It encompasses a wide range of actions, from simple reflexes to complex activities. Behaviours can be triggered by a stimulus in the environment or by internal changes.
There are two main types of behaviour:
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Overt Behaviour: This is behaviour that can be outwardly seen, observed, or sensed by another person. It is external and directly observable.
- Examples: Blinking your eyes when something is hurled at you, running after seeing a tiger, writing an essay, or playing a game of football.
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Covert Behaviour: This is behaviour that is internal and not directly observable by others. It includes mental processes and internal physiological responses.
- Examples: Feeling your heart pound during an examination, thinking about a move in a game of chess, or feeling your hand muscles twitch as you contemplate an action. These are internal experiences or activities that are not visible to an outside observer.
Q2Review Questions
How can you distinguish scientific psychology from the popular notions about the discipline of psychology?
Solution
Scientific psychology can be distinguished from popular notions, or common sense, about the discipline in several key ways:
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Method of Inquiry: Scientific psychology uses a systematic and objective approach to study behaviour, experience, and mental processes. It relies on empirical data gathered under controlled conditions and seeks to establish cause-and-effect relationships. Popular notions are often based on personal experience, hindsight, or anecdotal evidence without any scientific investigation.
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Predictive vs. Post-Hoc Explanation: Scientific psychology aims to find patterns of behaviour that can be predicted before they occur. It develops theories and hypotheses that are then tested. Common sense often works in hindsight; it explains behaviour after it has occurred. For example, common sense offers contradictory sayings like "Out of sight, out of mind" and "Distance makes the heart grow fonder," with the chosen explanation depending on what actually happens.
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Verification and Objectivity: The findings of scientific psychology are verifiable and objective. Researchers try to minimize personal biases in their explanations. In contrast, popular notions are subjective and vary from person to person. They are not subjected to scientific scrutiny.
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Challenging Beliefs: Scientific psychology often runs against common sense. For instance, the Dweck (1975) study showed that children who experienced some failure and were taught to attribute it to a lack of effort performed better than those who were only given easy problems. This contradicts the common-sense belief that continuous success builds confidence. Similarly, scientific studies have debunked popular notions that men are more intelligent than women or that one cannot perform well before a large audience.
Q3Review Questions
Give a brief account of the evolution of psychology.
Solution
The evolution of modern psychology as a scientific discipline has been marked by the emergence of several different schools of thought, each offering a unique perspective on the study of mind and behaviour.
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Structuralism (1879): The formal beginning of modern psychology is traced to Wilhelm Wundt, who established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. Structuralists aimed to analyze the structure of the mind by breaking down conscious experience into its basic components (e.g., sensations, feelings). Their primary method was introspection, where subjects described their own mental processes in detail.
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Functionalism: Led by American psychologist William James, functionalism emerged as a reaction to structuralism. Instead of focusing on the structure of the mind, functionalists were interested in what the mind does and how behaviour helps people adapt to their environment. They studied how mental processes enable individuals to satisfy their needs and function effectively.
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Gestalt Psychology (Early 20th Century): Originating in Germany, this school opposed the structuralist view of breaking down experience. Gestalt psychologists argued that perceptual experience is holistic and more than the sum of its parts. They emphasized that we perceive the world in organized wholes, or 'gestalts'.
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Behaviourism (Around 1910): John B. Watson rejected the study of mind and consciousness as unscientific because they were not directly observable. He defined psychology as the scientific study of observable and verifiable behaviour (responses to stimuli). This approach, further developed by B.F. Skinner, dominated psychology for decades.
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Psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud introduced a radical view of human nature, emphasizing the role of the unconscious mind. He proposed that human behaviour is a dynamic manifestation of unconscious desires, conflicts, and motivations, particularly those related to pleasure-seeking and sexual desires.
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Humanistic Psychology: In contrast to the deterministic views of behaviourism and psychoanalysis, humanists like Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow presented a more positive perspective. They emphasized free will, personal growth, and the natural human striving to reach one's full potential.
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Cognitive Perspective: This perspective, which gained prominence later, brought the focus back to mental processes. It studies how we acquire, process, store, and retrieve information. Cognitive psychology views the human mind as an information-processing system, similar to a computer, and explores processes like thinking, memory, perception, and problem-solving.
Q4Review Questions
What are the problems for which collaboration of psychologists with other disciplines can be fruitful? Take any two problems to explain.
Solution
Collaboration between psychologists and other disciplines is fruitful for solving complex problems where human behaviour is a key component. Psychology's insights into mental processes, emotions, and behaviour can complement the knowledge of other fields.
Here are two examples of problems where such collaboration is beneficial:
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Improving Patient Health and Adherence to Medical Treatment (Collaboration with Medicine):
- Problem: Many patients with chronic illnesses like cancer, AIDS, or heart disease struggle with the psychological stress of their condition. Furthermore, many do not adhere to their prescribed treatment regimens, which can lead to poor health outcomes. Doctors are often focused on the physical aspects of the illness.
- Collaboration: Psychologists can work with doctors to address the mental well-being of patients. Health psychologists can provide counselling to help patients cope with stress, anxiety, and depression. They can also design interventions to change health-hazardous behaviours (like smoking) and improve adherence to medication and lifestyle changes. For example, Ornish's studies showed that using psychological techniques like positive visualization could help patients with blocked arteries, demonstrating a direct link between mind and body that requires a collaborative approach to treatment.
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Enhancing the Justice System (Collaboration with Law and Criminology):
- Problem: The legal system faces challenges related to the reliability of human memory and judgment. Questions arise such as: How accurate is an eyewitness's memory of a crime? What psychological factors influence a jury's decision? How can one reliably detect falsehood in testimony?
- Collaboration: Psychologists can provide crucial insights into these issues. Forensic psychologists conduct research on memory, perception, and decision-making to help the legal system. They can testify as expert witnesses on the fallibility of eyewitness testimony, help in jury selection, assess a defendant's mental state, and advise on what constitutes a just punishment for a criminal act. This collaboration helps make the legal process more fair and effective by grounding it in a scientific understanding of human behaviour.
Q5Review Questions
Differentiate between (a) a psychologist and a psychiatrist (b) a counsellor and a clinical psychologist.
Solution
(a) Psychologist and Psychiatrist
The primary differences between a psychologist and a psychiatrist lie in their education, training, and approach to treatment.
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Education and Training: A clinical psychologist has a degree in psychology (such as a Ph.D. or Psy.D.), which involves intensive training in psychological theories, research methods, and therapeutic techniques. A psychiatrist, on the other hand, has a medical degree (M.D.) and is a medical doctor who has completed specialized training in the treatment of psychological disorders.
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Approach to Treatment: Because of their differing training, their treatment approaches vary. Psychologists primarily use psychotherapy and other behavioural interventions to help people with psychological disorders. Psychiatrists are trained to view mental disorders from a medical perspective and can prescribe medications and give treatments like electroshock therapy. Clinical psychologists cannot prescribe medication.
(b) Counsellor and Clinical Psychologist
While the work of counsellors and clinical psychologists can overlap, there are key differences in the severity of the problems they typically handle and their primary focus.
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Focus and Severity of Problems: A clinical psychologist deals with the diagnosis, causes, treatment, and prevention of more severe psychological disorders, such as anxiety disorders, depression, eating disorders, and chronic substance abuse. A counselling psychologist generally works with people who have less serious problems. Their focus is on improving everyday functioning by helping individuals solve problems in daily living and cope more effectively with challenging situations, such as personal issues or career planning.
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Work Settings: Although both can work in similar settings, counselling psychologists are often found in university counselling centers or other educational settings, advising students. Clinical psychologists are more commonly found in hospitals or private practice, dealing with diagnosable mental illnesses.
Q6Review Questions
Describe some of the areas of everyday life where understanding of psychology can be put to practice.
Solution
An understanding of psychology is highly relevant in our day-to-day lives and can be applied to solve a variety of personal and social problems. Here are some key areas:
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Self-Understanding and Personal Growth: Psychology helps us understand ourselves better—our thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. By applying psychological principles, we can develop a more balanced and positive understanding of ourselves, moving away from defensive behaviours or overly critical self-perceptions. This knowledge can be used to cultivate good habits, improve self-control, and foster personal growth.
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Improving Learning and Study Habits: The principles of cognitive psychology can be directly applied to enhance learning and memory. Students can use techniques for effective studying, improve their memory retention, and develop better problem-solving skills. Understanding motivation and attention can also help in overcoming procrastination and staying focused.
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Solving Personal and Interpersonal Problems: Psychology provides tools for better decision-making and communication. This can help in resolving conflicts with family members, friends, or colleagues. By understanding emotions and social dynamics, we can navigate social situations more effectively and build healthier relationships.
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Coping with Stress: Psychological knowledge is invaluable for managing stress, particularly in demanding situations like examinations or workplace pressure. Techniques for stress reduction, relaxation, and positive thinking can improve mental and physical well-being.
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Parenting and Child Development: Understanding developmental psychology helps parents and caregivers create a supportive environment for a child's growth. It offers insights into the needs of children at different stages, effective discipline strategies, and ways to foster healthy emotional and social development.
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Promoting Health and Well-being: Health psychology shows the strong link between mind and body. This knowledge can be used to motivate oneself to engage in healthy behaviours like exercise and a balanced diet, and to avoid health-hazardous activities. It also helps in coping with illness and adhering to medical advice.
Q7Review Questions
How can knowledge of the field of environmental psychology be used to promote environment friendly behaviour?
Solution
Environmental psychology studies the interaction between physical environments and human behaviour. Knowledge from this field can be effectively used to understand and promote environment-friendly behaviour in several ways:
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Understanding Human-Environment Interaction: Environmental psychologists investigate how factors like pollution, crowding, and natural disasters affect human well-being and behaviour. By understanding these relationships, they can identify the psychological barriers that prevent people from acting in an environmentally responsible manner.
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Designing Pro-Environmental Interventions: This knowledge can be used to design programs that encourage conservation and sustainability. For example, research might show that providing immediate feedback on energy consumption (e.g., through smart meters) is more effective at reducing usage than providing monthly bills. Psychologists can help design persuasive messages that appeal to people's values and social norms to encourage recycling and reduce waste.
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Influencing Urban and Architectural Design: Environmental psychology can inform the design of workplaces, homes, and public spaces to make them more sustainable and conducive to pro-environmental actions. For instance, designing buildings with more natural light can reduce electricity consumption, and creating accessible and attractive public transport systems can decrease reliance on private cars.
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Promoting Efficient Resource Management: The field examines how human behaviour impacts community resources. Psychologists can work with policymakers to develop strategies for managing issues like water shortages or waste disposal. They can help create community-based programs that foster a sense of shared responsibility and cooperation for conserving energy and other resources.
In essence, environmental psychology provides the tools to understand the human element of environmental problems and to develop psychologically-informed solutions that motivate individuals and communities to adopt more sustainable lifestyles.
Q8Review Questions
In terms of helping solve an important social problem such as crime, which branch of psychology do you think is most suitable. Identify the field and discuss the concerns of the psychologists working in this field.
Solution
The most suitable branch of psychology for helping solve the social problem of crime is Forensic Psychology. This is an emerging field that applies psychological principles to the legal and criminal justice system. It often works in conjunction with knowledge from social psychology, clinical psychology, and cognitive psychology.
Concerns of Psychologists in Forensic Psychology:
Forensic psychologists work on a variety of issues within the legal system. Their primary concerns include:
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Criminal Profiling and Investigation: While not as dramatic as portrayed in media, psychologists may assist law enforcement in understanding the motives and behavioural patterns of criminals to help in investigations.
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Assessing Witness Credibility: A key concern is the reliability of eyewitness testimony. Forensic psychologists research factors that can influence memory, such as stress, the presence of a weapon, or suggestive questioning. They may testify in court as expert witnesses to educate the jury about the potential inaccuracies of human memory.
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Evaluating Mental State of Offenders: They are often called upon to assess a defendant's mental competency to stand trial. They also evaluate whether a defendant was sane at the time of the crime, which is crucial for determining criminal responsibility.
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Jury Selection and Decision-Making: Psychologists study what factors influence the decisions made by a jury. They may act as consultants to lawyers, helping them select jurors and frame arguments in a way that is psychologically persuasive.
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Treatment and Rehabilitation of Offenders: Forensic psychologists work in correctional facilities to design and implement treatment programs for inmates. These programs may address issues like anger management, substance abuse, or other psychological disorders with the goal of reducing recidivism (the likelihood of reoffending).
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Child Custody and Family Law: In civil cases, forensic psychologists may be asked to evaluate families and recommend custody arrangements that are in the best interest of the child.
In summary, forensic psychology plays a critical role in making the justice system more effective and fair by applying a scientific understanding of human behaviour to complex legal questions.