Key Points

Ecology denotes the web of physical and biological systems and processes, including mountains, rivers, flora, and fauna, of which humans are one element.

Social environments emerge from a two-way process where nature shapes society (e.g., fertile plains enabling agriculture) and society shapes nature (e.g., deforestation causing floods).

Many environments that appear natural are often produced by human intervention, such as the Ridge forest in Delhi planted by the British or agricultural fields converted into national parks.

Social organization, including property relations and the division of labor, determines how different social groups can use and are affected by natural resources.

Environmental problems are social problems because social inequality determines the extent to which people can protect themselves from environmental crises or how their 'solutions' might worsen disparities.

Social ecology, a concept from Murray Bookchin, states that nearly all ecological problems arise from deep-seated social problems like economic, ethnic, and gender conflicts.

Resource depletion is the exhaustion of non-renewable natural resources like fossil fuels, groundwater, and topsoil, and the destruction of biodiversity habitats like forests and wetlands.

Pollution of air, water, and from noise is a major hazard, caused by industrial emissions, vehicle exhaust, domestic sewage, and agricultural runoff, leading to serious health risks.

Global warming is the rise in global temperatures caused by greenhouse gases trapping the sun's heat, which leads to climate change, rising sea levels, and ecological imbalances.

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) are created by gene-splicing to introduce new characteristics in crops, but their long-term effects on health and ecosystems are largely unknown.

Sustainable development, as defined by the 1987 Brundtland Report, is development that meets present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

We live in 'risk societies' where we use complex industrial technologies that we do not fully understand, making us vulnerable to disasters like the Chernobyl nuclear accident and the Bhopal gas tragedy.

On December 3, 1984, a toxic gas leak from the Union Carbide pesticide factory in Bhopal killed about 4,000 people, highlighting issues of industrial safety and corporate negligence.

The values of capitalism have supported the commodification of nature, turning it into objects that can be bought and sold for profit, stripping away other cultural or ecological meanings.