Contemporary South AsiaClass 12 Contemporary World Politics Notes

Overview

South Asia is a region marked by a complex mix of conflict and cooperation. After India and Pakistan became nuclear powers, the region gained significant global attention. The primary focus has been on its many conflicts, which include:

• Border and water-sharing disputes between countries.
• Internal struggles related to insurgency and ethnic strife.
• Disagreements over resource sharing.

Despite these tensions, there is a strong belief among the people of South Asia that cooperation could lead to shared development and prosperity. This chapter explores the nature of these conflicts and cooperative efforts, beginning with the domestic politics of the major countries in the region.

What is South Asia?

The term 'South Asia' typically refers to seven countries: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. The region is geographically distinct, bordered by the Himalayas in the north and surrounded by the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea, and the Bay of Bengal. This natural insularity has contributed to its unique linguistic, social, and cultural identity.

While countries like Afghanistan and Myanmar are sometimes included in discussions about the region, and China is a major player, this chapter focuses on the seven core countries. South Asia is incredibly diverse but is considered a single geopolitical space.

Political Systems in South Asia

The political systems across South Asia are varied.

• India and Sri Lanka have maintained democratic systems since their independence from British rule.
• Pakistan and Bangladesh have experienced periods of both civilian democratic rule and military takeovers. However, since the post-Cold War period, Bangladesh has remained a democracy.
• Nepal was a constitutional monarchy until 2006. In 2008, it abolished the monarchy and became a democratic republic.
• Bhutan became a constitutional monarchy in 2008 and has since emerged as a multi-party democracy.
• The Maldives was a Sultanate until 1968, after which it became a republic. It introduced a multi-party system in 2005.

The Military and Democracy in Pakistan

Pakistan has struggled to maintain a stable democracy since its first constitution was framed. Its political history has been characterized by a cycle of civilian governments being overthrown by military coups.

1. General Ayub Khan took power and was later forced to step down due to popular dissatisfaction.
2. He was followed by another military takeover under General Yahya Khan. During his rule, Pakistan faced the Bangladesh crisis, leading to the 1971 war with India and the creation of Bangladesh.
3. An elected government led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was in power from 1971 to 1977.
4. General Zia-ul-Haq removed the Bhutto government in 1977. He faced a pro-democracy movement starting in 1982.
5. An elected government was restored in 1988 under Benazir Bhutto. The following years saw political competition between her Pakistan People's Party and the Muslim League.
6. In 1999, the army stepped in again, with General Pervez Musharraf removing Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif.
7. Since 2008, democratically elected leaders have been ruling Pakistan.

Factors for Democratic Instability in Pakistan

Several factors have contributed to Pakistan's failure to build a stable democracy:

• Social Dominance: The military, clergy, and powerful landowning aristocracy have frequently overthrown elected governments.
• Conflict with India: The ongoing conflict with India has made pro-military groups more powerful. These groups often argue that democracy is flawed and that military rule is necessary to protect Pakistan's security.
• Lack of International Support: The United States and other Western countries have often supported military regimes in Pakistan. Fearing the rise of 'global Islamic terrorism' and the security of Pakistan's nuclear weapons, they have viewed the military as a stabilizing force that protects Western interests.

Despite these challenges, Pakistan has a strong pro-democracy sentiment, a courageous free press, and a robust human rights movement.

Democracy in Bangladesh

From 1947 to 1971, Bangladesh was a part of Pakistan, known as East Pakistan. The people of this region felt dominated by West Pakistan. Their main grievances were:

• The imposition of the Urdu language.
• Unfair treatment of their Bengali culture and language.
• Lack of fair representation in administration and political power.

Sheikh Mujib-ur Rahman led the popular struggle for autonomy. In the 1970 elections, his Awami League party won a majority of seats in Pakistan's constituent assembly. However, the West Pakistani leadership refused to convene the assembly, and Sheikh Mujib was arrested.

Under General Yahya Khan, the Pakistani army tried to suppress the Bengali movement, killing thousands. This led to a massive refugee crisis in India. The Indian government supported East Pakistan's demand for independence, providing financial and military aid. This resulted in the India-Pakistan war in December 1971, which ended with the surrender of Pakistani forces and the birth of Bangladesh as an independent nation.

Post-Independence Politics in Bangladesh

• Bangladesh initially adopted a constitution based on secularism, democracy, and socialism.
• In 1975, Sheikh Mujib amended the constitution, shifting to a presidential system and banning all parties except his own. This led to conflict, and he was assassinated in a military uprising in August 1975.
• A series of military rulers followed, including Ziaur Rahman and Lt Gen H. M. Ershad.
• Mass public protests, led by students, forced Ershad to step down in 1990.
• Since the elections in 1991, representative democracy based on multi-party elections has been functioning in Bangladesh.

Monarchy and Democracy in Nepal

For many years, Nepal was a Hindu kingdom and later a constitutional monarchy. The king, with the army's help, retained control and restricted the growth of democracy.

A strong pro-democracy movement in 1990 forced the king to accept a new democratic constitution. However, democratic governments had a short and troubled run. During the 1990s, the Maoists of Nepal gained influence, believing in armed struggle against the monarch and the ruling elite.

This led to a triangular conflict between three groups:

• The monarchist forces.
• The democrats.
• The Maoists.

In 2002, the king abolished the parliament and dismissed the government, ending the limited democracy that existed.

In April 2006, massive, country-wide pro-democracy protests erupted. This movement, led by the Seven Party Alliance (SPA), the Maoists, and social activists, forced the king to restore the House of Representatives.

Nepal’s transition to democracy was unique, as it formed a constituent assembly to draft a new constitution. In 2008, Nepal officially became a democratic republic after abolishing the monarchy. It adopted a new constitution in 2015.

Ethnic Conflict and Democracy in Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka has maintained a democratic system since its independence in 1948. However, it faced a severe challenge from ethnic conflict, not from the military or a monarchy.

After independence, politics in Sri Lanka (then called Ceylon) was dominated by the majority Sinhala community. Sinhala nationalists were hostile to the large number of Tamils who had migrated from India and settled there. They believed that Sri Lanka belonged only to the Sinhala people and that Tamils should not be given any 'concessions'.

This neglect of Tamil concerns led to the rise of militant Tamil nationalism. From 1983 onwards, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) fought an armed struggle against the Sri Lankan army, demanding a separate country called 'Tamil Elam' for the Tamils.

India's Involvement

The conflict involved people of Indian origin, and there was pressure from Tamils in India for the Indian government to protect Tamil interests in Sri Lanka.

• In 1987, India got directly involved for the first time by signing an accord with Sri Lanka.
• India sent the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) to stabilize the situation.
• Eventually, the IPKF ended up in a fight with the LTTE. Many Sri Lankans saw the Indian troops as an interference in their internal affairs.
• The IPKF was pulled out in 1989 without achieving its objective.

The armed conflict finally ended in 2009 when the LTTE was defeated.

India-Pakistan Conflicts

The most significant conflict in South Asia is between India and Pakistan. The key areas of dispute are:

Kashmir

Soon after partition in 1947, the two countries fought over the fate of Kashmir. Wars in 1947-48 and 1965 failed to resolve the issue. The first war resulted in the division of the province into Pakistan-occupied Kashmir and the Indian province of Jammu and Kashmir, separated by the Line of Control. India won a decisive war in 1971, but the Kashmir issue remained unsettled.

Arms Race

Strategic issues like the control of the Siachen glacier and the acquisition of arms have fueled conflict. The arms race took a dangerous turn in the 1990s when both countries developed nuclear weapons. India conducted nuclear tests in 1998, and Pakistan responded with its own tests a few days later.

Terrorism and Security

• The Indian government accuses Pakistan of aiding Kashmiri militants with arms, training, and money for terrorist strikes against India.
• India also believes Pakistan's spy agency, the Inter Services Intelligence (ISI), is involved in anti-India campaigns in its northeast.
• The Pakistani government, in turn, blames India for stirring trouble in its provinces of Sindh and Balochistan.

Water Sharing

The two countries had a fierce dispute over the use of the rivers of the Indus basin until 1960. With the help of the World Bank, they signed the Indus Waters Treaty that year. The treaty has survived despite several wars and is a rare example of successful conflict resolution.

Border Demarcation

A minor dispute exists over the demarcation line in Sir Creek in the Rann of Kutch, which could impact control over sea resources in the area.

India and its Other Neighbours

Given its central location and size, India shares a border with all other South Asian countries and is involved in most of the region's conflicts.

India and Bangladesh

• Areas of Disagreement: Sharing of the Ganga and Brahmaputra river waters, illegal immigration from Bangladesh to India, and Bangladesh's refusal to allow Indian troops to move through its territory to northeast India.
• Areas of Cooperation: Economic relations have improved significantly. Bangladesh is part of India's Look East (Act East since 2014) policy. The two countries cooperate on disaster management and environmental issues.

India and Nepal

• Special Relationship: A treaty allows citizens of both countries to travel and work in the other without visas or passports.
• Areas of Disagreement: Trade-related disputes, Nepal's warm relationship with China, and Nepal's perceived inaction against anti-Indian elements. India is concerned about the Maoist movement in Nepal.
• Areas of Cooperation: Trade, scientific cooperation, common natural resources, and electricity generation hold the two countries together.

India and Sri Lanka

• Main Issue: The ethnic conflict involving the Tamil minority in Sri Lanka. After the military intervention in 1987, India now prefers a policy of disengagement from Sri Lanka's internal troubles.
• Positive Developments: A free trade agreement has strengthened relations, and India’s help in post-tsunami reconstruction brought the countries closer.

India and Bhutan

India enjoys a very special relationship with Bhutan with no major conflicts. India is involved in large hydroelectric projects and is Bhutan's biggest source of development aid.

India and the Maldives

Relations are warm and cordial. In November 1988, India's military responded quickly to a request from the Maldives to stop a coup attempt by mercenaries.

Peace and Cooperation

Despite the many conflicts, South Asian states recognize the importance of cooperation.

SAARC

The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) was a major initiative started in 1985 to promote cooperation through multilateral means. Unfortunately, due to persistent political differences, SAARC has not been very successful.

SAFTA

SAARC members signed the South Asian Free Trade (SAFTA) agreement in 2004, which came into effect in 2006.

• Aim: To lower trade tariffs and create a free trade zone for the whole of South Asia.
• Concerns: Some neighbouring countries fear that SAFTA is a way for India to "invade" their markets and influence their societies and politics.
• India's View: India believes SAFTA offers real economic benefits for all and that a region that trades more freely will cooperate better on political issues.

India-Pakistan Relations

Though often defined by conflict, there have been efforts to build peace.

• Confidence-building measures have been agreed upon to reduce the risk of war.
• Bus routes have been opened, and trade has increased at various times.
• Leaders have met at summits to find solutions to major problems.

The Role of External Powers

South Asia does not exist in a vacuum and is influenced by outside powers.

• China: Sino-Indian relations have improved, but China’s strategic partnership with Pakistan remains a major irritant for India. Economic ties between China and India have grown rapidly.
• United States: American involvement in South Asia has increased significantly since the end of the Cold War. The US has good relations with both India and Pakistan and often acts as a moderator between them. The large South Asian diaspora in the US and the region's huge markets give America a stake in regional security and peace.

Ultimately, whether South Asia evolves into a cooperative regional bloc or remains a conflict-prone zone will depend more on the people and governments of the region itself than on any outside power.