Chapter Notes

The Mughal School of Miniature Painting

Mughal painting is a distinctive style of miniature painting that flourished in the northern Indian subcontinent from the sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth century. Known for its refined techniques and wide variety of subjects, this style had a major impact on later schools of Indian painting. The development of Mughal art is closely linked to the tastes and preferences of the Mughal emperors, each of whom contributed to its evolution.

Influences on Mughal Painting

The Mughal School is celebrated for its remarkable ability to blend different artistic traditions. It was a true synthesis of various styles, creating something entirely new and sophisticated.

The major influences were:

• Persian Style: Early Mughal art was heavily influenced by Persian traditions, especially after Emperor Humayun brought master artists from Persia to his court. This influence is visible in the fine lines, intricate patterns, and sophisticated compositions.
• Indigenous Indian Styles: Before the Mughals, India had its own rich traditions of painting. These styles were characterized by flat perspectives, strong lines, bold colours, and distinct ways of depicting figures. Mughal artists, many of whom were Indian, incorporated these elements into their work.
• European Styles: From the reign of Akbar onwards, contact with Europeans introduced new themes and techniques. This led to a greater sense of realism, the use of three-dimensional figures, and the creation of optical reality in paintings.

This blend of Islamic, Hindu, and European aesthetics allowed Mughal painting to surpass the conventional art of its time. The paintings were created in royal workshops, known as ateliers, by teams of calligraphers, painters, gilders, and binders. These artworks were primarily for the royals, serving to document important events, portray personalities, and provide intellectual stimulation.

Early Mughal Painting

Babur (Founder of the Mughal Empire)

Babur, who came from Central Asia in 1526, brought with him the aesthetic tastes of Persia. His autobiography, the Baburnama, reveals his deep interest in art, architecture, and nature.

• He established the tradition of keeping detailed memoirs, which were often illustrated.
• He had a keen eye for portraiture and mentioned artists in his memoirs, such as Bihzad, a master from the Persian school. Babur noted Bihzad's skill in composition but critiqued his way of drawing faces.
• Although his reign in India was short, he laid the foundation for the artistic patronage that his successors would build upon.

Humayun

Humayun's political struggles turned out to be a blessing for Mughal art.

1. After being dethroned, Humayun took refuge in the Safavid court of Shah Tahmasp in Persia. There, he was exposed to the magnificent Persian tradition of miniature painting and manuscript illustration.
2. Inspired, he brought two Persian master artists, Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd us Samad, back with him when he regained power in India.
3. He established a painting workshop, the Nigaar Khana, and commissioned the illustration of the Hamza Nama, an epic tale of the heroic deeds of Hamza, the uncle of Prophet Muhammad. This project was a massive undertaking that would be continued by his son, Akbar.

An important early painting, Princes of the House of Timur (1545-50), shows the strong Persian influence of this period in its format, theme, and colour palette. Interestingly, portraits of later emperors like Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan were painted over the original figures, turning the painting into a dynastic record.

Akbar (1556-1605)

Akbar's reign marks the true formalization and flourishing of the Mughal style. He created a large royal atelier with over a hundred artists, including both Persian masters and skilled indigenous Indian painters. This collaboration led to the development of a unique Indo-Persian style.

• Focus on Manuscripts: Believed to have had dyslexia, Akbar greatly emphasized the illustration of manuscripts, as he preferred to understand texts through visuals.
• Major Projects:
  • Hamza Nama: He continued and completed this massive project, which consisted of 1400 illustrations across 14 volumes. The paintings were large, done on cloth backed with paper, and used for storytelling sessions where a narrator would read the story while showing the corresponding image.
  • Razm Nama: To promote cultural integration, Akbar commissioned the translation and illustration of the Hindu epic Mahabharata into Persian. This version was called the Razm Nama. The project was supervised by the master artist Daswant.
  • Akbar Nama: This manuscript was a detailed chronicle of Akbar's own life and reign, featuring numerous intricate paintings.
• Artistic Characteristics: Paintings from Akbar's era are full of action and energy, using vibrant colours like pure yellows, reds, and browns. They often depict detailed political conquests, court scenes, and stories from Hindu mythology and Islamic themes.
• European Influence: Contact with Europeans began during his reign. The painting Madonna and Child (1580) is a key example, where a Christian theme is reinterpreted with Indian details, showing the atelier's ability to absorb new ideas.

The Reign of Jahangir (1605-1627)

Jahangir, who had a keen interest in art from a young age, took the Mughal style to new heights of sophistication and refinement. His artistic taste was different from his father's.

• Shift in Focus: While Akbar's atelier mass-produced illustrations for large manuscripts, Jahangir preferred a smaller number of higher-quality paintings, often created by a single master artist.
• Love for Nature: As detailed in his memoir, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, Jahangir was deeply curious about the natural world. He commissioned scientifically accurate and detailed paintings of flora and fauna.
• Popularity of Albums (Muraqqas): Individual paintings, mounted in albums, became popular. The margins of these paintings were often exquisitely illuminated with gold and detailed drawings of plants, animals, and human figures.
• Key Artists: Jahangir patronized famous artists like Aqa Riza and his son Abul Hasan (who was given the title Nadir al Zaman, meaning 'Wonder of the Age'), Manohar, and Bichitra.
• Increased European Influence: Jahangir's fascination with European art led to a greater assimilation of its techniques, such as the use of spatial depth and naturalistic representation.

The Reign of Shah Jahan (1628-1658)

Shah Jahan, known for his passion for architecture like the Taj Mahal, also oversaw a distinct phase in Mughal painting. The style shifted from Jahangir's naturalism to a more formal and idealized aesthetic.

• Style and Technique: Paintings under Shah Jahan are known for their idealisation and great stylisation. They feature jewel-like colours, perfect rendering, and extremely fine, intricate lines. The focus was less on realistic depiction and more on creating an exalted, beautiful, and majestic image.
• Subject Matter: The main subjects were imperial portraits, lavish court scenes, and historical events, all depicted with immense grandeur. The goal was to project a majestic and powerful image of the emperor and his court.
• Major Project: The Padshahnama (The Chronicles of the King) was one of the most magnificent manuscript projects from his reign, showcasing the peak of technical perfection in Indian miniature painting.
• Dara Shikoh: Shah Jahan's son, Dara Shikoh, was a liberal scholar with a deep interest in Sufism and Hindu philosophy. The painting Dara Shikoh with Sages in a Garden immortalizes his persona as a poet and connoisseur.

Aurangzeb and Later Mughal Painting

Aurangzeb was primarily focused on military expansion and unifying the empire. While he did not put as much effort into the royal atelier as his predecessors, it was not shut down immediately and continued to produce some beautiful paintings.

However, with the gradual decline in strong royal patronage, many highly skilled artists left the Mughal court. They found work in provincial courts, where rulers tried to imitate the Mughal style. This led to the spread of Mughal artistic conventions across India, but often with a distinct regional flavour.

The reigns of later emperors like Muhammad Shah Rangila, Shah Alam II, and the last Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah Zafar, saw some masterworks produced, but these were the "last flickers" of a declining style. Eventually, the Mughal miniature style merged with other regional styles, including the Provincial and Company School styles that emerged with British influence.

Process and Technique of Mughal Painting

Mughal miniatures were typically part of manuscripts or albums. The creation process was a collaborative effort within the atelier.

1. Preparation: Sheets of handmade paper were prepared and cut to the manuscript's size.
2. Layout: Space was designated for the painting, and the rest of the page was filled with calligraphed text.
3. Composition (tarh): An artist would first sketch the basic composition.
4. Portraits (chiharanama): Another artist, specializing in portraits, might draw the faces.
5. Colouring (rangamizi): Other artists would grind pigments and fill in the colours.
6. Finishing: The completed painting was burnished (polished) with a piece of agate, a gemstone, to set the colours and give the surface a radiant sheen.

Colours and Materials

• Paper: Handmade paper was specially prepared for painting.
• Colours: Opaque colours, called gouache, were made from natural sources.
  • Vermilion (red) from cinnabar.
  • Ultramarine (blue) from Lapis Lazuli.
  • Bright yellow from orpiment.
  • White from ground shells.
  • Black from charcoal (lampblack).
• Brushes: Fine brushes were made from the hair of squirrels or kittens, allowing for incredibly detailed work.
• Embellishments: Gold and silver powders were often mixed with colours or sprinkled on the painting to add a look of luxury and extravagance.

Analysis of Key Mughal Paintings

Krishna Lifts Mount Govardhan

• Artist: Attributed to Miskin
• Period: Akbar (1585-90)
• Collection: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
• Subject Matter: This painting illustrates a story from the Harivamsa Purana, a Sanskrit text translated into Persian under Akbar's orders. It depicts Lord Krishna lifting the entire Govardhan mountain on his little finger to protect the villagers and their livestock from the torrential rains sent by the god Indra. The mountain acts as a giant umbrella, sheltering everyone.

Falcon on a Bird Rest

• Artist: Ustad Mansur (who held the title Nadir ul Asr)
• Period: Jahangir (c. 1615)
• Collection: Cleveland Museum of Art, Ohio
• Subject Matter: Jahangir was a keen observer of nature and had his artists paint the rare birds and animals in his collection. This painting is a detailed and scientifically accurate portrait of a falcon. The Jahangirnama mentions an episode where a prized falcon, a gift from Shah Abbas of Persia, was killed by a cat. Jahangir was so saddened that he ordered his painters to create a portrait of the dead bird to preserve its memory. This painting reflects that deep interest in capturing the exact likeness of animals.

The Marriage Procession of Dara Shikoh

• Artist: Haji Madni
• Period: Shah Jahan
• Collection: National Museum, New Delhi
• Subject Matter: This painting depicts the grand marriage procession of Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Shah Jahan. The prince is shown on a brown stallion, accompanied by his father, Shah Jahan, who is on a white horse with a glowing nimbus (halo) around his head. The scene is filled with pomp and show, including music, dance, gifts, and fireworks, capturing the glamour and ceremony of the royal court during Shah Jahan's reign.