Chapter Notes

The Pahari Schools of Painting

The term Pahari literally means 'hilly or mountainous' and refers to a style of painting that developed in the small kingdoms of the western Himalayas between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries. These centres of art included towns like Basohli, Guler, Kangra, Kullu, Chamba, Mankot, Nurpur, Mandi, Bilaspur, and Jammu.

The journey of Pahari painting is one of remarkable evolution. It began with a bold and vibrant style in Basohli and gradually transformed, passing through a transitional phase known as the Guler or pre-Kangra style. This evolution culminated in the Kangra School, which is considered one of the most delicate, sophisticated, and beautiful styles of Indian painting.

Challenges in Classification

Unlike Mughal or Deccani paintings, which have more distinct regional features, Pahari paintings are difficult to classify based on their territory alone.

• Fluid Boundaries: The political boundaries between the small hill states were constantly changing, making it hard to assign a painting to a single "school" just based on where it was made.
• Lack of Documentation: There is a scarcity of dated paintings, colophons (notes at the end of manuscripts), or inscriptions that could help us categorize them accurately.
• Shared Characteristics: While each centre had some individual traits (like how they depicted nature, faces, or costumes), they didn't develop into completely independent schools with unique styles.

Origins and the "Family as Style" Theory

The exact emergence of the Pahari School is not entirely clear, but it is widely believed that artists in the hills were familiar with Mughal and Rajasthani painting styles. This was likely due to family ties between the hill Rajas and the royal courts of Rajasthan, as well as the presence of Provincial Mughal art.

However, the earliest known Pahari style is the bold and expressive Basohli style. A leading scholar, B.N. Goswamy, proposed a groundbreaking theory that shifts the focus from geography to family.

• The Family of Pandit Seu: Goswamy argues that the family of an artist named Pandit Seu (also called Shiv) and his sons were primarily responsible for the evolution of the Pahari style.
• Style Bearers: He suggests that instead of thinking of a "Kangra School" or "Guler School," it is more accurate to see an artist's family as the carrier of a particular style. This explains how different artistic styles could exist in the same region or how a style could travel when an artist moved.
• Transformation: According to this view, the transformation from the simple Basohli idiom to the refined Kangra style was driven by the ingenuity and experimentation of artist families like Pandit Seu's, who were influenced by new art forms (especially Mughal naturalism) that arrived in the hills.

Basohli School

The town of Basohli is where the first and most dramatic style of Pahari painting emerged. Under the rule of an enlightened prince, Kirpal Pal (1678-1695), Basohli developed a magnificent and distinctive artistic identity.

Characteristics of the Basohli Style

• Bold and Vibrant Colours: The style is known for its strong use of primary colours, especially warm yellows that often fill the background.
• Stylised Nature: Trees and other vegetation are depicted in a stylised, non-realistic manner.
• Pearl Representation: Artists used raised white paint to create a textured, realistic effect for pearl ornaments.
• Beetle-Wing Emeralds: The most unique feature is the use of small, shiny green particles from beetle wings to represent emeralds in jewellery, giving the paintings a glittering, jewel-like quality.

Popular Themes and Artists

The most popular theme for Basohli painters was the Rasamanjari of Bhanu Datta, a poetic text on love. In 1694-95, an artist named Devida created a magnificent series on this theme for his patron, Kirpal Pal. Other popular subjects included the Bhagvata Purana and Ragamala series, as well as portraits of local kings and courtiers.

From Basohli, the style spread to other hill states like Chamba and Kullu, leading to local variations. It was this foundational style that artists began to experiment with in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, leading to the next major phase.

Guler School

In the first quarter of the eighteenth century, the bold Basohli style began to transform into something new. This transitional phase, known as the Guler-Kangra phase, first appeared in Guler under the patronage of Raja Govardhan Chand (1744-1773).

This new style was more refined, subdued, and elegant compared to the energetic vitality of Basohli painting. The artists credited with this significant shift are Pandit Seu and his two exceptionally talented sons, Manak and Nainsukh.

Key Artists and Their Contributions

• Manak (or Manaku): Manak initiated the move towards the new style. His most outstanding work is a set of paintings for the Gita Govinda (1730), which still retains some Basohli elements, like the lavish use of beetle-wing casings, but shows a clear shift towards greater refinement.
• Nainsukh: While Manak started the change, his brother Nainsukh is considered the one who truly shaped the Guler School. He left his hometown of Guler to work for Raja Balwant Singh of Jasrota.
  • Master of Portraiture: Nainsukh's genius was in creating intimate and individualised portraits. He painted his patron, Balwant Singh, in numerous everyday situations: performing a puja, inspecting a building site, or wrapped in a quilt in the cold.
  • Subtle Palette: His style featured delicate pastel shades and daring use of large, simple areas of white or grey. Nainsukh's focus on realistic portraiture became a key feature of later Pahari painting.

Kangra School

The Guler style reached its most mature and refined form in the nearby state of Kangra, blossoming under the patronage of a remarkable ruler, Raja Sansar Chand (1775-1823). When the ruler of Guler faced financial troubles, it is believed that artists from the family of Manaku moved to the court of Sansar Chand, bringing their highly developed style with them.

Under Sansar Chand, his capital Tira Sujanpur became the most important centre for Pahari painting. The Kangra style soon spread to other regions, from Garhwal to Kashmir.

Characteristics of the Kangra Style

The Kangra style is celebrated as the most poetic and lyrical of all Indian painting styles.

• Delicacy and Refinement: It is marked by a delicate and fine line, brilliant yet soft colours, and incredible minuteness in decorative details.
• Idealised Female Form: The most distinctive feature of the Kangra style is its depiction of the female face. By the 1790s, a new ideal emerged: a gentle face with a straight nose in line with the forehead.
• Lyrical and Serene Mood: The paintings evoke a sense of calm, beauty, and romance, perfectly suited to their themes.

Popular Themes

While artists continued to paint religious texts like the Bhagvata Purana and Gita Govinda, they also illustrated romantic poetry such as Nala Damayanti and Bihari Satsai. A large number of paintings were also created to document the life of Raja Sansar Chand and his court.

Two other popular themes were:

• Ashta Nayikas: The depiction of the "eight heroines," each representing a different emotional state in relation to her beloved. The Abhisarika Nayika, the heroine who bravely goes to meet her lover at night, was a particularly favourite subject.
• Baramasa: A series of twelve paintings illustrating the moods of love and life appropriate to each month of the year, as described in texts like the Kavipriya by Keshav Das.

The golden period of Kangra painting lasted from about 1785 to 1805. The school's productivity was severely affected when the Gurkhas besieged the Kangra fort in 1805, and though Sansar Chand continued to support his artists, the work never again reached the same masterful heights.

Other Pahari Centres

While Basohli, Guler, and Kangra represent the main line of development, the Pahari style manifested with local variations in other centres:

• Kullu: Developed a distinctive style with figures having prominent chins and wide-open eyes. The Shangri Ramayana is a famous set from this region.
• Nurpur: Artists here blended the vibrant colours of the Basohli style with the delicate figure types of the Kangra style.
• Jasrota: This school is famous primarily through the work of Nainsukh, who documented the life of his patron, Raja Balwant Singh, in numerous sophisticated portraits.
• Mandi: The rulers were devout worshippers of Vishnu and Shiva, so besides Krishna themes, Shaivite subjects were also commonly painted.
• Garhwal: An artist named Molaram is associated with this school, which was heavily influenced by the Kangra style during the time of Sansar Chand.

Analysis of Key Paintings

Nanda, Yashoda and Krishna with Kinsmen going to Vrindavan (Kangra School)

This painting illustrates a scene from the Bhagvata Purana where Nanda's family decides to move from Gokul to the safer land of Vrindavan.

• Subject: The painting depicts a procession led by Nanda on his bullock cart, followed by another cart with Krishna, Balaram, and their mothers, Yashoda and Rohini. They are accompanied by men and women carrying household items.
• Artistic Skill: The Kangra artist shows amazing skill in observing and depicting human details: the tilt of heads in conversation, expressions of fatigue on the faces of those carrying heavy loads, and the taut muscles of arms holding pots.
• Composition: The landscape is rendered naturalistically. The composition is "flush-cut," meaning it looks like a snapshot or a photograph where the scene continues beyond the frame, which adds to its sense of realism.

Balwant Singh looking at a Painting with Nainsukh (Guler-Jasrota School)

This is a remarkable painting where the artist Nainsukh likely includes a self-portrait with his patron, Prince Balwant Singh of Jasrota.

• Subject: Balwant Singh is seated, smoking a hukka, and closely examining a painting of Krishna. Standing respectfully behind him is a figure believed to be Nainsukh himself.
• Mood: The composition is clean and uncluttered, creating a sense of quietude, peace, and tranquility. Musicians are placed at the edge of the scene, suggesting soft background music that enhances the calm atmosphere.
• Significance: It is a rare and intimate glimpse into the relationship between an artist and his patron. It showcases Nainsukh's ability to capture not just a likeness, but also the personality and mood of his subject.