Chapter Notes

The Rajasthani Schools of Painting

The term 'Rajasthani Schools of Painting' refers to the various styles of miniature painting that developed in the princely kingdoms of Rajasthan and parts of modern-day Madhya Pradesh. These schools flourished largely between the sixteenth and early nineteenth centuries in places like Mewar, Bundi, Kota, Jaipur, Bikaner, Kishangarh, Jodhpur (Marwar), and Malwa.

Initially, in 1916, the scholar Anand Coomaraswamy used the term 'Rajput Paintings' for this art. He wanted to differentiate this indigenous Indian tradition from the Mughal School of Painting, which had a different style. His category also included the Malwa and Pahari schools. However, art history studies have evolved, and the term 'Rajput Schools' is now considered obsolete. Instead, we use more specific terms like 'Rajasthani' and 'Pahari' to describe these distinct regional styles.

Even though these kingdoms were geographically close, their painting styles were incredibly diverse. They differed in:

• Execution: Some were fine and detailed, while others were bold and simple.
• Color Palette: Some preferred brilliant, vibrant colors, while others used a more gentle, subdued palette.
• Composition: The way they depicted architecture, figures, and nature varied significantly.
• Style: Some aimed for naturalism, while others emphasized extreme mannerism and stylization.

The Art of Making a Miniature Painting

Creating these beautiful artworks was a detailed and collaborative process.

1. The Canvas: Artists painted on waslis, which were layered, thin sheets of handmade paper glued together to achieve the desired thickness.
2. The Sketch: A master artist would first sketch the outline in black or brown on the wasli.
3. The Coloring: Colors, made from minerals and precious metals like gold and silver mixed with glue, were then filled in. Pupils or experts specializing in different areas—like portraiture, landscapes, or animals—would contribute their skills.
4. The Brushes: Brushes were made from fine camel and squirrel hair.
5. The Finishing Touches: The master artist would add the final details. A scribe would then write the relevant verse or description in the space left for it.
6. Burnishing: Finally, the painting was burnished (rubbed) with an agate stone to give it a uniform, appealing sheen.

Themes of Paintings - An Overview

The content of Rajasthani paintings was deeply influenced by the cultural and religious currents of the time, especially the Bhakti movement.

By the sixteenth century, Vaishnavism—the worship of Vishnu and his avatars like Rama and Krishna—had become very popular. Krishna, in particular, was a favorite subject. He was seen not just as a god but also as an ideal lover, and the theme of divine love became central to the art. This love was a blend of earthly sensuousness and spiritual mysticism, with Radha representing the human soul yearning to unite with God (Krishna).

Artists drew inspiration from a rich body of literature to create their paintings.

Key Literary Sources for Paintings

• Gita Govinda: Written by Jayadeva in the twelfth century, this Sanskrit poem beautifully describes the mystical love between Radha and Krishna, full of emotion and worldly imagery.
• Rasamanjari: Composed by Bhanu Datta in the fourteenth century, this text is a treatise on rasa (aesthetic flavor). It classifies heroes (nayakas) and heroines (nayikas) based on their age, appearance, and emotional states. Although Krishna is not mentioned in the text, painters often depicted him as the ideal hero.
• Rasikapriya: Written in 1591 by Keshav Das, the court poet of Orchha, this work explores the complex emotions between lovers—love, jealousy, anger, separation, and togetherness—through the figures of Radha and Krishna.
• Kavipriya: Another work by Keshav Das, this poem's tenth chapter, titled Baramasa, is a vivid description of the twelve months of the year. Paintings based on the Baramasa show the daily life of people through different seasons, often depicting a heroine pleading with her lover not to leave her.
• Bihari Satsai: Authored by Bihari Lal around 1662 for his patron at the court of Jaipur, this collection of 700 verses contains moralizing witticisms and aphorisms. It was a popular subject, especially in the Mewar school.

Ragamala Paintings

A unique and important theme was the Ragamala, or "Garland of Ragas." These are pictorial interpretations of Indian classical musical modes (ragas and raginis).

• Each raga is associated with a specific mood, time of day, and season.
• Musicians and poets envisioned these ragas as divine or human figures in romantic or devotional settings.
• Ragamala paintings are typically arranged in albums of 36 or 42 paintings, organized into "families." Each family is headed by a male raga with six female consorts, or raginis.
• The six main ragas are Bhairava, Malkos, Hindol, Dipak, Megha, and Shri.

Other Popular Themes

Beyond literary and musical interpretations, Rajasthani artists painted a wide variety of subjects, including:

• Romantic Legends: Folk tales like Dhola-Maru, Sohni-Mahiwal, and Chaurpanchashika.
• Religious Epics: Scenes from the Ramayana, Bhagvata Purana, Mahabharata, and Devi Mahatmya.
• Courtly Life: A large number of paintings documented life at the royal court, such as darbar scenes, historical events, hunting expeditions, royal processions, picnics, and festivals.
• Portraits: Portraits of kings, courtiers, and their families were also common.

Malwa School of Painting

Flourishing between 1600 and 1700 CE, the Malwa School is considered highly representative of the Hindu Rajput courts. Its style is marked by a two-dimensional, simplistic language that evolved from earlier Jain manuscript traditions.

Unlike other schools that were tied to specific royal courts, the Malwa School does not have a precise center of origin. It is associated with a vast territory in Central India. The lack of portraits or mentions of patron kings in these paintings suggests that they were likely created by travelling artists who sold their work to various rulers, such as those of the Datia Palace.

Popular themes in the Malwa School included the Ramayana, Bhagvata Purana, Rasikapriya, Ragamala, and Baramasa.

Mewar School of Painting

Mewar is believed to be one of the earliest centers of painting in Rajasthan. However, due to long wars with the Mughals, most of the early examples have been lost.

The formal emergence of the Mewar School is often associated with a Ragamala set painted in 1605 at Chawand by the artist Nisardin. This set is known for its direct approach, simple compositions, and vibrant colors, reflecting an older, indigenous style.

The golden period of Mewar painting was the reign of Jagat Singh I (1628-1652). During this time, master artists Sahibdin and Manohar infused new energy into the school.

• Sahibdin was a prolific artist, known for his illustrations of the Ragamala (1628), Rasikapriya, Bhagvata Purana (1648), and the Yuddha Kanda of the Ramayana (1652). He was known for using an innovative oblique aerial perspective to depict large-scale battle scenes.
• Manohar's most significant work is the Bal Kanda of the Ramayana (1649).
• Another gifted artist, Jagannath, painted the Bihari Satsai in 1719.

Characteristics of Mewar Painting

• Bright Color Palette: Mewar artists favored a vibrant palette with prominent reds and yellows.
• Narrative Techniques: Artists like Sahibdin would either layer multiple episodes into a single painting or spread one episode across several pages.
• Shift in Themes: In the eighteenth century, the focus shifted from illustrating texts to depicting courtly activities like royal portraits, hunting scenes, and festivals.

A prominent center that emerged near Udaipur was Nathdwara, famous for its pichhwais—large paintings on cloth created as backdrops for the deity Shrinathji.

Bundi School of Painting

A distinct and prolific school of painting flourished in Bundi in the seventeenth century, celebrated for its excellent color sense and formal design. An early example is the Bundi Ragamala dated 1591, painted at Chunar during the reign of Bhoj Singh.

The school blossomed under patrons like Rao Chattar Sal and his son Rao Bhao Singh. Later rulers like Aniruddha Singh, Budh Singh, and Umed Singh also encouraged the art form. During the reign of Bishen Singh (1771-1821), who was a keen hunter, hunting scenes became a frequent subject.

Characteristics of Bundi Painting

• Lush Vegetation: A key feature of both Bundi and Kota paintings is the detailed depiction of lush landscapes, with diverse flora, wildlife, hills, and water bodies.
• Fine Portraits: The school produced excellent equestrian portraits. The drawing of elephants is considered unsurpassed.
• Feminine Beauty: Bundi artists had a specific standard for female figures: petite women with round faces, receding foreheads, sharp noses, and a "pinched" waist.
• Deccani Influence: In the eighteenth century, Bundi paintings began to show Deccani influence, particularly in the love for bright and vivid colors.

Kota School of Painting

The Kota School emerged from the Bundi tradition after 1625, when the kingdom was divided. While early Kota paintings are almost indistinguishable from Bundi works, the school soon developed its own strikingly individual style.

Kota painting is most famous for its dynamic and exciting depiction of hunting scenes. This obsession with the chase was particularly prominent during the reign of Umed Singh (1770-1819). As a young king, he spent most of his time on hunting expeditions, and paintings served as records of his adventures.

Characteristics of Kota Painting

• Spontaneity and Action: Kota paintings are known for their spontaneous, calligraphic lines that convey a sense of movement and energy.
• Focus on Animals and Combat: Artists excelled in rendering animals in motion and dramatic combat scenes.
• Landscape as Subject: Kota artists were among the first in Rajasthan to treat the landscape not just as a background but as the primary subject of a composition.
• Distinctive Features: Marked shading and a characteristic double-lid eye are common in Kota figures.

Bikaner School of Painting

The Bikaner School developed a unique style due to its long and close association with the Mughals. This resulted in a refined language of painting that combined Mughal elegance and a subdued color palette with local traditions.

The school was well-established under Anup Singh (1669-1698), who created a library for manuscripts and paintings. Many master artists from the Mughal court, known as Ustas or Ustad, came to work in Bikaner.

• Ustad Ali Raza from Delhi was one of the early master painters.
• Ruknuddin, the master artist in Anup Singh's court, created a style that was a sophisticated blend of indigenous, Deccani, and Mughal elements.

Unique Practices of the Bikaner School

• Mandi System: Artists worked in studios called Mandi under the supervision of a master artist.
• Excellent Documentation: Bikaner is one of the best-documented schools. Inscriptions in Marwari and Persian on the back of paintings often reveal the artist's name, date, and sometimes the occasion for the commission. Royal archives called Bahis also provide valuable information.
• Artist Portraits: Uniquely, the Bikaner school produced portraits of the artists themselves, often with details about their ancestry.
• Gudarayi: This was the practice of the master artist adding the final finishing touches to a painting completed by a pupil.

Kishangarh School of Painting

The Kishangarh School is widely considered one of the most stylized and sophisticated of all Rajasthani schools. It is instantly recognizable for its distinct and exaggerated facial type.

The unique style evolved by the early eighteenth century, but it was under the patronage of Sawant Singh (1706-1748), a devout follower of Krishna and a poet who wrote under the pen name Nagari Das, that the school reached its zenith.

The master artist Nihal Chand is credited with creating the iconic Kishangarh style. He composed paintings based on Sawant Singh's poetry, depicting the divine lovers Radha and Krishna. Sawant Singh's muse was a talented singer and poet known as Bani Thani ("the bewitching lady of fashion"). She is believed to be the inspiration for the idealized image of Radha in Kishangarh paintings.

Characteristics of Kishangarh Painting

• The Kishangarh Face: The style is defined by its elongated human forms and a very specific facial type:
  • Arched eyebrows
  • Lotus-petal-shaped eyes, slightly tinged with pink
  • A sharp, slender nose
  • Thin lips
• Panoramic Landscapes: Artists excelled in depicting vast, detailed landscapes with lavish use of green and other accentuated colors.

Jodhpur (Marwar) School of Painting

The Jodhpur School shows a fascinating blend of Mughal influence—seen in portraiture and court scenes—and a strong, indigenous folk style that remained dominant in most illustrated manuscripts.

A productive period began under Maharaja Jaswant Singh (1638-1678), who patronized documentary paintings of court life as well as themes related to Krishna. The heroism of the warrior Veer Durgadas Rathore, who fought against Aurangzeb, was a popular theme during the reign of Ajit Singh.

The last innovative phase of Jodhpur painting was during the reign of Man Singh (1803-1843). He was a follower of the Nath Sampradaya, a religious sect, and commissioned paintings of Nath gurus alongside epics like the Ramayana and folk tales like Dhola-Maru.

A unique feature of Jodhpur paintings is the way local culture is woven into epic stories. For example, in a Ramayana series, the city of Ayodhya is depicted with the bazaars, lanes, and architecture of Jodhpur.

Jaipur School of Painting

The Jaipur School originated in Amer, which was very close to the Mughal capitals of Agra and Delhi. The rulers of Amer maintained close ties with the Mughal emperors, which strongly influenced the art.

The school truly thrived under Sawai Jai Singh (1699-1743), who founded the city of Jaipur in 1727. He established the Suratkhana (department of painting) and even invited Mughal painters from Delhi to his court. His leading artists included the portrait painter Sahibram and Muhammad Shah.

A second major period of artistic activity occurred under Sawai Pratap Singh (1779-1803). An ardent devotee of Krishna, he employed around 50 artists. During his reign, a distinct Jaipur style emerged, blending Mughal and indigenous features. Religious and literary themes like the Gita Govinda and Bhagvata Purana were revived alongside royal portraits and court scenes.

Characteristics of Jaipur Painting

• Large Formats: Jaipur artists preferred large-sized formats and even produced life-size portraits.
• Mughal Influence: Early works show a strong Mughal aesthetic.
• Lavish Use of Gold: By the early nineteenth century, there was a lavish use of gold in the paintings.
• Copying: Many copies were produced using tracing techniques.

Study of Specific Rajasthani Paintings

Maru Ragini (Mewar School)

• Artist: Sahibdin
• Date: 1628 CE
• Theme: This painting is part of a Ragamala series but depicts the popular Rajasthani folk tale of Dhola and Maru. The prince, Dhola, and princess, Maru, are shown escaping on a camel after overcoming many obstacles to be together.
• Significance: This painting is historically important because of a detailed inscription on it, which names the artist (Sahibdin), the patron (Rana Shri Jagat Singh), the date (1628 CE), and the place (Udaipur). This provides crucial documentary evidence for the study of the Mewar school.

Raja Aniruddha Singh Hara (Bundi School)

• Artist: Tulchi Ram
• Date: c. 1680 CE
• Theme: This is a dynamic equestrian portrait of the prince Aniruddha Singh.
• Artistic Technique: To convey a sense of incredible speed, the artist has shown the horse galloping high in the air, completely omitting the ground beneath its feet. This technique turns a static portrait into a narrative of motion and power.

Chaugan Players (Jodhpur School)

• Artist: Dana
• Date: 1810 CE
• Theme: The painting depicts a princess and her companions playing Chaugan (polo).
• Style: It showcases a mixture of influences: the depiction of women is Mughal-inspired, the horses show a Deccani influence, and the facial features are reminiscent of the Bundi and Kishangarh schools. The flat green background reflects the indigenous preference for flat surfaces.

Krishna Swinging and Radha in Sad Mood (Bikaner School)

• Artist: Nuruddin
• Date: 1683 CE
• Theme: Based on the Rasikapriya, this painting tells a story in two parts. In the upper section, Krishna is on a swing with another Gopi. In the lower section, a jilted and sad Radha has retreated to the countryside, and Krishna's guilt is apparent as her friend pleads with him.
• Composition: The artist cleverly uses a soft, undulating mound to divide the scene into two distinct spaces: the "palatial interior" above and the "pastoral outdoors" below, guiding the narrative from top to bottom.

Bani Thani (Kishangarh School)

• Artist: Nihal Chand
• Theme: This is the iconic painting that defines the Kishangarh school. It is a highly stylized portrait of Radha, who is believed to have been modeled on Bani Thani, the beautiful and talented singer who was the muse of the ruler-poet Sawant Singh.
• Characteristics: The painting perfectly exemplifies the Kishangarh facial type: arched eyebrows, lotus-shaped eyes, a pointed nose, and thin lips. It represents a sublime fusion of poetry, romance, and religious devotion.

Rama meets Members of his Family at Chitrakut (Jaipur School)

• Artist: Guman
• Date: 1740-1750 CE
• Theme: This painting from the Ramayana uses a continuous narrative technique to show multiple moments from a single story within one frame.
• Narrative Flow: The story unfolds from left to right. It begins with Rama's mothers arriving at his hut in the forest. It then shows Rama greeting them, learning of his father's death and collapsing in grief, and finally, the family group exiting on the right. Each character in the painting is labeled, making the complex scene easy to follow.