Chapter Notes

An Imperial Capital Vijayanagara

Vijayanagara, which means "city of victory," was both a city and a vast empire founded in the fourteenth century. At its peak, the empire stretched from the Krishna River in the north to the far south of the Indian peninsula. In 1565, the capital city was attacked, looted, and eventually abandoned.

Though the city fell into ruin, it was not forgotten. People living in the region remembered it as Hampi, a name derived from the local mother goddess, Pampadevi. The rediscovery of the great Vijayanagara Empire was made possible by combining these local memories with archaeological findings, inscriptions, and other historical records.

The Discovery of Hampi

The process of uncovering the history of Vijayanagara was a long one, involving several key figures and methods:

• Colonel Colin Mackenzie: In 1800, this engineer and employee of the English East India Company was the first to bring the ruins at Hampi to wider attention. He created the first survey map of the site. His initial information came from the oral traditions of the priests at the Virupaksha temple and the shrine of Pampadevi.
• Photography: Starting in 1856, photographers began to document the monuments, which allowed scholars to study the structures in detail from afar.
• Epigraphy: As early as 1836, epigraphists started collecting and studying the dozens of inscriptions found on the walls of the temples at Hampi.
• Foreign Travellers' Accounts: Historians pieced together information from these archaeological sources with written accounts from foreign travellers and literature in Telugu, Kannada, Tamil, and Sanskrit to reconstruct the history of the city and the empire.

Rayas, Nayakas and Sultans

According to historical traditions and inscriptions, two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, founded the Vijayanagara Empire in 1336. The empire was a diverse place, home to people who spoke different languages and followed various religious traditions.

The rulers of Vijayanagara, known as rayas, were often in competition with their neighbours. They fought with the Sultans of the Deccan and the Gajapati rulers of Orissa for control over fertile river valleys and profitable overseas trade routes. However, this conflict also led to a sharing of ideas, especially in architecture. The Vijayanagara rulers borrowed building concepts and techniques from these other kingdoms and then developed them further.

Kings and traders

Warfare in this period relied heavily on a strong cavalry, making the import of high-quality horses from Arabia and Central Asia crucial. This trade was initially controlled by Arab traders, but local merchant communities called kudirai chettis (horse merchants) also took part.

From 1498, the Portuguese arrived on the west coast and became major players. With their superior military technology, including muskets, they established trading and military posts and influenced the region's politics.

Vijayanagara was also a bustling centre for trade in other goods. Its markets were famous for spices, textiles, and precious stones. For a city like Vijayanagara, a thriving trade was a symbol of status, attracting a wealthy population that desired high-value and exotic goods. The revenue from this trade was a major contributor to the state's prosperity.

The apogee and decline of the empire

Power in the Vijayanagara polity was contested not just by the ruling family but also by military commanders.

1. The first dynasty, the Sangama dynasty, ruled until 1485.
2. They were replaced by the Saluvas, who were military commanders. They held power until 1503.
3. The Saluvas were replaced by the Tuluvas. The most famous Vijayanagara ruler, Krishnadeva Raya, belonged to this dynasty.
4. After a period of instability, control shifted to the Aravidu dynasty in 1542, which ruled until the end of the seventeenth century.

Krishnadeva Raya's Rule (1509-1529): This period is considered the golden age of the empire, marked by expansion and consolidation.

• He acquired the fertile land between the Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers (the Raichur doab) in 1512.
• He subdued the rulers of Orissa in 1514.
• He inflicted major defeats on the Sultan of Bijapur in 1520.

Under his rule, the kingdom enjoyed great peace and prosperity. Krishnadeva Raya was also a great builder, credited with constructing fine temples and adding impressive gopurams (gateways) to many important South Indian temples. He founded a new suburban township near Vijayanagara called Nagalapuram in honour of his mother.

The Decline: After Krishnadeva Raya's death in 1529, the empire began to weaken. His successors struggled with rebellious military chiefs, or nayakas.

This instability led to the pivotal Battle of Rakshasi-Tangadi (also known as Talikota) in 1565. In this battle, Rama Raya, the chief minister of Vijayanagara, was decisively defeated by the combined armies of the Sultanates of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, and Golconda. The victorious armies sacked the city of Vijayanagara, leaving it in ruins. The focus of the empire then shifted east, where the Aravidu dynasty ruled from Penukonda and later Chandragiri.

The rayas and the nayakas

Within the empire, military chiefs known as nayakas held significant power. They usually controlled forts, had armed supporters, and spoke Telugu or Kannada. While many submitted to the authority of the Vijayanagara kings, they often rebelled and had to be brought under control by military force.

A key political innovation of the empire was the amara-nayaka system, which was likely inspired by the iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate.

• Amara-nayakas were military commanders who were given territories to govern by the raya.
• They collected taxes from peasants, craftspersons, and traders in their territories.
• They kept a portion of the revenue for their personal use and for maintaining a required force of horses and elephants for the king.
• They sent an annual tribute to the king and appeared in the royal court with gifts to show their loyalty.

This system provided the Vijayanagara kings with a powerful fighting force that helped them control the entire southern peninsula. However, in the seventeenth century, many nayakas established their own independent kingdoms, which hastened the collapse of the central imperial structure.

Vijayanagara The Capital and its Environs

The city of Vijayanagara had a very distinctive layout and building style. Our knowledge about the city comes from archaeological remains and the detailed accounts of foreign visitors like Nicolo de Conti (Italy), Abdur Razzaq (Persia), Afanasii Nikitin (Russia), Duarte Barbosa, Domingo Paes, and Fernao Nuniz (all from Portugal).

Water resources

One of the most remarkable features of Vijayanagara was its management of water.

• The city is located in a natural basin formed by the Tungabhadra River, which flows in a north-easterly direction.
• The landscape is dominated by stunning granite hills.
• As this is one of the most arid zones of the peninsula, the rulers made elaborate arrangements to store rainwater. They built embankments along streams flowing from the hills to create reservoirs.
• The Kamalapuram tank, built in the early fifteenth century, was a major reservoir. Its water not only irrigated fields but was also channelled to the "royal centre."
• The Hiriya canal drew water from a dam on the Tungabhadra to irrigate the cultivated valley between the "sacred centre" and the "urban core."

Fortifications and roads

The city was protected by massive fortress walls. The Persian ambassador Abdur Razzaq was so impressed that he mentioned seven lines of forts.

• A Unique Feature: These fortifications enclosed not only the city but also its agricultural fields and forests. This was a clever strategy to ensure the city would not starve during a long siege, which could last for months or even years.
• Construction: The walls were built with wedge-shaped stone blocks that held each other in place without any mortar or cementing agent. The inner part of the wall was packed with earth and rubble.
• Multiple Layers: A second line of fortification surrounded the inner urban core, and a third line protected the royal centre.
• Gateways: The city was accessed through well-guarded gates. The architecture of these gateways, particularly the use of arches and domes, shows the influence of Indo-Islamic styles that developed from interaction with the Turkish Sultans.
• Roads: Roads within the city generally wound through the valleys, avoiding the rocky terrain. The most important roads often extended from temple gateways and were lined with bazaars.

The urban core

In the urban core, where ordinary people lived, there is little archaeological evidence of houses because they were likely built with perishable materials like thatch. The Portuguese traveller Barbosa described these houses as "thatched, but nonetheless well built."

• Archaeologists have found fine Chinese porcelain in some areas, suggesting these may have been the residences of rich traders.
• There was also a Muslim residential quarter, with its own mosques and tombs.
• The entire area was dotted with numerous shrines and small temples, indicating that various cults and communities were supported.
• Water for ordinary town dwellers likely came from wells, rainwater tanks, and temple tanks.

The Royal Centre

The royal centre was located in the south-western part of the city. Though it was the administrative heart of the empire, it included over 60 temples. This shows how important the patronage of temples and cults was for rulers to legitimize their authority.

About thirty major building complexes have been identified as palaces. Unlike temples, which were built entirely of stone, these secular buildings had superstructures made of perishable materials like wood, which have not survived.

The mahanavami dibba

Two of the most impressive structures in the royal centre are the "audience hall" and the "mahanavami dibba."

• The mahanavami dibba is a massive platform, about 40 feet high, with a base of about 11,000 sq. ft. Its base is covered with intricate relief carvings.
• It is believed that this platform was central to the Mahanavami festival (known as Dussehra or Navaratri in other parts of India), a ten-day Hindu festival held in autumn.
• During this festival, the Vijayanagara kings would display their power, prestige, and authority.
• Ceremonies included worship of the state horse, sacrifice of animals, wrestling matches, dances, and grand processions of horses, elephants, and soldiers.
• On the last day, the king would inspect his army and the armies of his nayakas, who would bring rich gifts and their annual tribute.

Other buildings in the royal centre

• Lotus Mahal: This beautiful building was named by British travellers in the nineteenth century. Its actual function is unknown, but a map drawn by Mackenzie suggests it might have been a council chamber where the king met his advisers. Its arches show Indo-Islamic architectural influence.
• Hazara Rama temple: This spectacular temple was likely used exclusively by the king and his family. While the main images in the shrine are missing, the inner walls are covered with sculpted panels depicting scenes from the Ramayana.
• Elephant Stables: A large building located near the Lotus Mahal with arched gateways and domes has been identified as the stables for the royal elephants.

The Sacred Centre

The sacred centre was situated on the rocky northern end of the city, along the banks of the Tungabhadra River.

Choosing a capital

The choice of this specific site for the capital was deeply rooted in sacred traditions.

• Mythological Links: Local tradition holds that these hills were the monkey kingdom of Vali and Sugriva from the epic Ramayana. Another tradition states that Pampadevi, the local mother goddess, performed penance in these hills to marry Virupaksha, the guardian deity of the kingdom (a form of Shiva).
• Pre-existing Shrines: The existence of the shrines of Virupaksha and Pampadevi, along with Jaina temples from the pre-Vijayanagara period, made this an already sacred landscape.
• Royal Legitimacy: The Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of the god Virupaksha. All royal orders were signed "Shri Virupaksha." They also adopted the title "Hindu Suratrana," a Sanskrit version of the Arabic term "Sultan," which literally meant "Hindu Sultan." By building, repairing, and maintaining temples, rulers won support and demonstrated their power, wealth, and piety.

Gopurams and mandapas

Vijayanagara rulers built upon existing South Indian temple architecture (of the Cholas, Hoysalas, etc.) and added their own distinctive features.

• Raya Gopurams: These were massive royal gateways, often so tall that they dwarfed the towers on the central shrines. They were a symbol of imperial authority and could be seen from a great distance.
• Mandapas: These were pavilions or halls with intricately carved pillars. Long, pillared corridors often ran around the shrines within the temple complex.

Key Temples:

• The Virupaksha Temple: This was an ancient shrine that was significantly expanded after the founding of the Vijayanagara Empire. Krishnadeva Raya built the grand hall in front of the main shrine to mark his accession to the throne and is also credited with building the eastern gopuram. The halls in the temple were used for various purposes, including special programs of music and dance, and celebrating the marriages of deities.
• The Vitthala Temple: The main deity here is Vitthala, a form of Vishnu primarily worshipped in Maharashtra. The presence of this temple shows how Vijayanagara rulers integrated different traditions to create a unique imperial culture. A key feature of this temple is its unique shrine designed as a chariot and the "chariot streets" that extend from the temple gopuram. These streets were paved and lined with pillared pavilions where merchants set up shops.

Plotting Palaces, Temples And Bazaars

The study of Vijayanagara has evolved over time. After Mackenzie's initial surveys, information was pieced together from travellers' accounts and inscriptions. In 1976, Hampi was recognized as a site of national importance.

In the 1980s, a massive project was launched to document the site in detail.

• Mapping: Archaeologists divided the entire area into a grid of 25 squares. Each square was then subdivided into smaller and smaller squares.
• Painstaking Surveys: This meticulous method allowed them to document thousands of structures, from tiny shrines to elaborate temples, as well as roads, paths, and bazaars.

Questions in Search of Answers

Surviving buildings tell us a lot about a society. By studying Vijayanagara's fortifications, we can understand its military needs. By comparing its architecture to that of other places, we can trace the spread of ideas and cultural influences. The buildings project the power and beliefs of their patrons.

However, there are many questions that architecture alone cannot answer.

• What did ordinary men, women, and children think of these grand structures?
• Who were the skilled masons, stonecutters, and sculptors who built these monuments? Where did they come from, and what were their lives like?
• Who drew up the architectural plans for these enormous projects?

While we can learn much from the stone structures that remain, we must use other sources like literature and inscriptions to get a fuller picture of the past and to understand the lives of the millions of people who called Vijayanagara home.