Key Points

Introduced by Lord Cornwallis in Bengal, this system fixed the land revenue demand in perpetuity. Zamindars were responsible for collecting revenue from peasants and paying the fixed amount to the East India Company.

Zamindars often failed to pay revenue due to high initial demands, low agricultural prices, the strict Sunset Law which mandated payment by a specific day, and their limited power to collect rent from ryots.

To avoid losing their estates, zamindars used strategies like fictitious sales, known as benami purchases, where their own agents would buy the land. They also used musclemen called lathyals to resist outsiders.

Jotedars were a class of rich peasants in Bengal who acquired vast lands and controlled local trade and moneylending. They were often more powerful in villages than the zamindars and actively resisted their authority.

This was a detailed report submitted to the British Parliament on the administration of the East India Company in India. It is a crucial source for studying rural Bengal but must be read critically as it was intended to critique Company rule.

The Paharias were hill folk who practiced shifting cultivation using a hoe, gathered forest produce, and raided the plains. They considered the forests their own land and resisted the intrusion of outsiders.

The British encouraged the Santhals to settle in the foothills of Rajmahal to clear forests and practice settled plough agriculture. They were seen as ideal settlers compared to the 'unruly' Paharias.

In 1832, a large area of land was demarcated as Damin-i-Koh for the Santhals to live and cultivate. This led to the expansion of Santhal settlements but also displaced the Paharias deeper into the hills.

The Santhals rebelled against the colonial state, zamindars, and moneylenders (dikus) due to exploitation through heavy taxes, high interest rates on loans, and the gradual loss of their lands.

As an employee of the East India Company, Francis Buchanan undertook detailed surveys of eastern India. His journals provide rich information but reflect the Company's commercial interests, focusing on resource exploitation.

This was a revenue system where the settlement was made directly with the ryot (peasant). Unlike the Permanent Settlement, the revenue demand was not fixed and was revised every 30 years, often upwards.

The American Civil War (1861-1865) disrupted cotton supplies to Britain, causing a surge in demand for Indian cotton. This led to a cotton boom in the Deccan, with ryots getting easy access to credit.

When the Civil War ended, demand for Indian cotton fell, and prices crashed. Moneylenders restricted credit and demanded repayment of old debts, while the government simultaneously increased revenue demand.

Ryots in the Deccan revolted against moneylenders (sahukars). Their main target was the destruction of account books (bahi khatas) and debt bonds, which they saw as instruments of their oppression.

The colonial government established a commission to investigate the riots. The final report blamed the moneylenders for the unrest, largely ignoring the role of the government's high revenue policies in causing peasant distress.