Chapter Notes

Prinsep and Piyadassi

A major breakthrough in understanding early Indian history happened in the 1830s. An officer of the East India Company's mint named James Prinsep managed to decipher two ancient scripts: Brahmi and Kharosthi. These scripts were used on the earliest inscriptions and coins found in India.

When he read these inscriptions, Prinsep found that most of them mentioned a king called Piyadassi, which means "pleasant to behold." A few inscriptions also referred to this king as Asoka, who was one of the most famous rulers known from Buddhist texts. This incredible discovery connected the archaeological evidence (inscriptions) with literary sources (Buddhist texts) for the first time.

This gave a whole new direction to the study of early Indian history. Scholars could now use inscriptions and texts to piece together the histories of the major dynasties that ruled the subcontinent.

The Earliest States

The sixteen mahajanapadas

The sixth century BCE is considered a major turning point in early Indian history. This era saw the rise of the first cities and states, the increasing use of iron, and the development of coinage. It was also a time of great intellectual change, with the growth of new systems of thought like Buddhism and Jainism.

Early Buddhist and Jaina texts mention sixteen large states known as mahajanapadas. Some of the most important and frequently mentioned mahajanapadas were:

• Vajji
• Magadha
• Koshala
• Kuru
• Panchala
• Gandhara
• Avanti

Forms of Government:

• Monarchies: Most mahajanapadas were ruled by kings.
• Oligarchies: Some, known as ganas or sanghas, were oligarchies. In these states, power was shared by a group of men, who were often collectively called rajas. Both Mahavira and the Buddha belonged to such ganas.

Features of Mahajanapadas:

• Each mahajanapada had a capital city, which was usually fortified for protection.
• They maintained standing armies and bureaucracies to run the state.
• To pay for these armies and cities, rulers collected taxes and tribute from cultivators, traders, and artisans. Brahmanas began composing Sanskrit texts called Dharmasutras, which laid down norms for rulers, who were ideally supposed to be Kshatriyas.
• Raiding neighboring states was also seen as a legitimate way to acquire wealth.

First amongst the sixteen: Magadha

Between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE, Magadha (located in modern-day Bihar) emerged as the most powerful mahajanapada. Historians suggest several reasons for its rise:

• Productive Agriculture: The region had highly fertile land, which supported a large population and provided a surplus for the state.
• Natural Resources: Iron mines (in modern-day Jharkhand) were accessible, providing the raw material for strong tools and weapons. Elephants, a vital part of the army, were found in nearby forests.
• Strategic Location: The Ganga river and its tributaries provided a cheap and convenient means of communication and transport.

While modern historians focus on these geographical factors, early Buddhist and Jaina writers attributed Magadha's power to the policies of its ruthlessly ambitious kings, such as Bimbisara, Ajatasattu, and Mahapadma Nanda.

Magadha's first capital was Rajagaha (modern Rajgir), a fortified city located amongst hills. Later, in the fourth century BCE, the capital was shifted to Pataliputra (modern Patna), which was strategically located along the Ganga river.

An Early Empire

The rise of Magadha eventually led to the emergence of the Mauryan Empire. Its founder, Chandragupta Maurya (who came to power around 321 BCE), extended control over a vast area, including modern-day Afghanistan and Baluchistan. His grandson, Asoka, is considered the most famous ruler of early India. He is known for conquering Kalinga (coastal Orissa).

Finding out about the Mauryas

Historians use a variety of sources to reconstruct the history of the Mauryan Empire:

• Archaeological Finds: Sculpture and other artifacts provide physical evidence.
• Contemporary Works: The account of Megasthenes, a Greek ambassador to Chandragupta's court, survives in fragments and gives valuable insights. The Arthashastra, a text on statecraft, is traditionally attributed to Kautilya (or Chanakya), Chandragupta's minister.
• Later Literature: The Mauryas are mentioned in later Buddhist, Jaina, and Puranic texts.
• Asokan Inscriptions: The inscriptions of Asoka on rocks and polished pillars are considered among the most valuable sources. Asoka was the first ruler to inscribe his messages for his subjects and officials.

Administering the empire

The Mauryan Empire was vast, with five major political centers:

1. Pataliputra (the capital)
2. Taxila
3. Ujjayini
4. Tosali
5. Suvarnagiri

These centers were strategically chosen. Taxila and Ujjayini were on important long-distance trade routes, while Suvarnagiri ("golden mountain") was likely important for accessing the gold mines of Karnataka.

Administrative control was probably strongest in the areas around the capital and these provincial centers. The messages in Asoka's inscriptions are found all over the empire, suggesting an attempt at a unified policy, but it's unlikely the entire vast region was administered uniformly.

Communication was vital, and journeys from the center to the provinces could take weeks. The army played a crucial role in protecting these routes and travelers. Megasthenes describes a committee with six subcommittees to coordinate military activities, covering everything from the navy and transport to infantry, cavalry, chariots, and elephants.

Asoka also tried to hold the empire together by promoting dhamma. This was a moral code that included:

• Respect for elders
• Generosity towards Brahmanas and ascetics
• Kindness to slaves and servants
• Respect for all religions and traditions

He appointed special officers called dhamma mahamatta to spread this message.

How important was the empire?

When British colonial rule was at its height, nineteenth and twentieth-century Indian historians found the idea of a powerful, vast empire in early India to be both exciting and inspiring. The art and sculpture of the Mauryan period were seen as spectacular, and Asoka was viewed as a powerful, industrious, and humble ruler, very different from later kings with grand titles. Nationalist leaders in the twentieth century saw him as an inspirational figure.

However, a critical look reveals a more complex picture.

• The Mauryan Empire lasted for only about 150 years, which is not very long in the grand span of Indian history.
• It did not cover the entire subcontinent.
• Even within its frontiers, administrative control was not uniform.

By the second century BCE, new chiefdoms and kingdoms began to emerge in different parts of the subcontinent, marking the decline of Mauryan authority.

New Notions of Kingship

Chiefs and kings in the south

After the Mauryan period, new kingdoms and chiefdoms emerged, particularly in the Deccan and the south. These included the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas in Tamilakam (the ancient Tamil country).

A chief is a powerful man whose position may or may not be hereditary. He derives support from his kinfolk and his functions include leadership in war, settling disputes, and performing rituals.

We know about these southern chiefdoms from sources like the early Tamil Sangam texts, which contain poems describing chiefs and how they acquired and distributed resources. Other rulers of this period, like the Satavahanas in western and central India and the Shakas in the northwest, derived much of their revenue from controlling long-distance trade routes.

Divine kings

To claim higher status and legitimize their rule, some kings began to identify themselves with gods.

This strategy was best used by the Kushanas (c. first century BCE - first century CE), who ruled a vast kingdom from Central Asia to northwest India. They projected their divine status through:

• Colossal Statues: Huge statues of Kushana rulers were installed in shrines in Mathura and Afghanistan, suggesting they considered themselves godlike.
• Titles: Many Kushana rulers adopted the title devaputra, or "son of god," possibly inspired by Chinese rulers who called themselves "sons of heaven."
• Coins: Their coins often depicted the king on one side and a deity on the other.

By the fourth century CE, the Gupta Empire emerged. Gupta rulers depended on samantas, who were local lords that controlled land and provided the king with military support. Powerful samantas could even become kings themselves.

The history of the Guptas is reconstructed from literature, coins, and inscriptions, especially prashastis. These were poems composed by court poets in praise of their kings. A famous example is the Prayaga Prashasti (also known as the Allahabad Pillar Inscription), composed in Sanskrit by Harishena, the court poet of Samudragupta, one of the most powerful Gupta rulers. The prashasti praises him in glowing terms, comparing him to gods and describing him as a supreme being.

A Changing Countryside

Popular perceptions of kings

While inscriptions tell us the king's perspective, they don't reveal what ordinary people thought of their rulers. To understand this, historians examine stories from collections like the Jatakas and the Panchatantra. These tales, originally passed down orally, were written in Pali around the middle of the first millennium CE.

One story, the Gandatindu Jataka, describes the miserable subjects of a wicked king. When the king went in disguise to learn what people thought of him, everyone—from elderly women to cultivators and even animals—cursed him. They complained of being attacked by robbers at night and tax collectors during the day. To escape, the people abandoned their village and fled into the forest.

This story suggests that the relationship between a king and his subjects could be very strained, especially due to high taxes. Fleeing into the forest was one way for people to protest oppressive demands.

Strategies for increasing production

To meet the growing demand for taxes and support rising populations, new strategies were adopted to increase agricultural production.

• Plough Agriculture: The use of the iron-tipped ploughshare spread in fertile alluvial river valleys like the Ganga and Kaveri from the sixth century BCE.
• Transplantation: In the Ganga valley, the production of paddy (rice) was dramatically increased by the technique of transplantation. This involves growing saplings in a nursery and then planting them in waterlogged fields, which leads to higher yields but requires back-breaking work.
• Irrigation: The use of wells, tanks, and sometimes canals for irrigation expanded. These projects were organized by both communities and powerful individuals, including kings, who often recorded these activities in inscriptions.

Differences in rural society

While new technologies increased overall production, the benefits were not shared equally. This led to growing differences in rural society. Buddhist texts mention various groups:

• Landless agricultural labourers
• Small peasants
• Large landholders

The Pali term gahapati was often used to refer to the head of a household who owned resources like land and animals and controlled the people living in the household. Large landholders and village headmen became powerful figures, often exercising control over other cultivators.

Similarly, early Tamil Sangam literature mentions different categories of people in villages:

• Vellalar (large landowners)
• Uzhavar (ploughmen)
• Adimai (slaves)

These differences were likely based on unequal access to land, labour, and new technologies.

Land grants and new rural elites

From the early centuries of the Common Era, we find evidence of land grants, often recorded on copper plates given to the recipient as a record of the transaction. These grants were usually made to religious institutions or to Brahmanas.

An inscription of Prabhavati Gupta, daughter of the Gupta king Chandragupta II, shows her granting land. This is exceptional because Sanskrit legal texts generally stated that women were not supposed to have independent access to resources like land. Her status as a queen may have allowed her to be an exception, or it may show that legal texts were not always strictly followed.

Such land grants, known as agrahara when given to a Brahmana, often came with exemptions from taxes and gave the recipient the right to collect dues from the local people.

Historians debate the meaning of these land grants.

• Some argue they were a strategy by rulers to extend agriculture into new areas.
• Others suggest they were a sign of weakening political power, where kings tried to win allies by granting land because they were losing control over their samantas.

Towns and Trade

New cities

From the sixth century BCE onwards, many urban centers emerged across the subcontinent. Many were the capitals of the mahajanapadas. Most major towns were located along important routes of communication:

• Riverine routes: Pataliputra
• Land routes: Ujjayini
• Coastal routes: Puhar

Cities like Mathura became bustling centers of commercial, cultural, and political activity.

Urban populations: Elites and craftspersons

Kings and ruling elites lived in these fortified cities. Archaeological excavations have revealed a wide range of artifacts from these urban sites, including fine pottery known as Northern Black Polished Ware, ornaments, tools, and figurines made from materials like gold, silver, ivory, and glass.

Votive inscriptions, which record gifts made to religious institutions, tell us about the people who lived in towns. They mention a variety of occupations, including weavers, scribes, carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, merchants, and officials.

These inscriptions also mention guilds or shrenis, which were organizations of craft producers and merchants. These guilds likely procured raw materials, regulated production, and marketed the finished goods.

Trade in the subcontinent and beyond

From the sixth century BCE, extensive trade networks crisscrossed the subcontinent and extended overseas.

• Overland routes went into Central Asia and beyond.
• Sea routes from coastal ports connected India across the Arabian Sea to East and North Africa and West Asia, and through the Bay of Bengal to Southeast Asia and China.

A wide range of goods were transported, including salt, grain, cloth, metal ores, timber, and medicinal plants. Spices, especially pepper, were in high demand in the Roman Empire.

Successful merchants, known as masattuvan in Tamil and setthis and satthavahas in Prakrit, could become extremely wealthy.

Coins and kings

Trade was made easier by the introduction of coinage. The study of coins is called Numismatics.

• Punch-marked coins made of silver and copper (from c. sixth century BCE) were among the earliest. The symbols on them may have been issued by kings, merchants, or bankers.
• The Indo-Greeks, who ruled the northwest around the second century BCE, were the first to issue coins bearing the names and images of rulers.
• The Kushanas issued the first gold coins in the first century CE. Their widespread use indicates the high value of the trade transactions taking place.
• The Gupta rulers issued some of the most spectacular gold coins, known for their purity.
• Even tribal republics, like the Yaudheyas of Punjab and Haryana, issued their own coins.

From the sixth century CE, finds of gold coins decrease. Historians are divided on why this happened. Some suggest that the collapse of the Western Roman Empire led to a decline in long-distance trade. Others argue that new trade networks were emerging, and coins were simply circulating more instead of being hoarded.

Back to Basics: How Are Inscriptions Deciphered?

Deciphering Brahmi

Most scripts used for modern Indian languages are derived from Brahmi, the script used in most of Asoka's inscriptions. In the late eighteenth century, European scholars, with help from Indian pandits, began comparing letters from contemporary Bengali and Devanagari manuscripts with older specimens. After decades of painstaking work, James Prinsep finally deciphered Asokan Brahmi in 1838.

How Kharosthi was read

The decipherment of Kharosthi, a script used in the northwest, happened differently. The key was the discovery of coins from Indo-Greek kings. These coins were bilingual, with the king's name written in both Greek and Kharosthi. Scholars who could read Greek compared the letters and were able to figure out the Kharosthi alphabet.

Historical evidence from inscriptions

Historians must critically analyze inscriptions. For example, Asoka's inscriptions often use his titles devanampiya ("beloved of the gods") and piyadassi ("pleasant to behold") instead of his name. Epigraphists concluded these were all issued by the same ruler by comparing the content, style, language, and script across all inscriptions where these titles appeared.

Historians must also question the claims made in inscriptions. Asoka claimed that earlier rulers had no arrangements to receive reports. A historian must assess whether this statement is true, plausible, or an exaggeration to make his own achievements seem greater.

The Limitations of Inscriptional Evidence

While inscriptions are a valuable source, they have limitations. The study of inscriptions is called epigraphy.

• Technical Limitations: Letters can be faintly engraved, or the inscription might be damaged or have letters missing, making reconstruction difficult.
• Problem of Interpretation: It's not always easy to be sure of the exact meaning of the words used, as meanings can change over time.
• Incompleteness: Thousands of inscriptions have been discovered, but many more must have existed that have not survived. What we have is only a fraction of what was written.
• Perspective and Bias: Inscriptions almost always project the perspective of the person who commissioned them—usually kings or elites. They focus on grand events and achievements, while the routine agricultural practices and the daily joys and sorrows of ordinary people are rarely mentioned.