Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist Movement
In the history of nations, single individuals are often seen as the primary architects. For example, we associate Garibaldi with the making of Italy and George Washington with the American War of Independence. In the same way, Mahatma Gandhi is widely regarded as the 'Father' of the Indian nation.
While Gandhi was indeed the most influential leader of the freedom struggle, his political journey was also shaped by the society he lived in. This chapter explores his activities in India between 1915 and 1948, examining how he inspired popular struggles and transformed the nationalist movement into a true mass movement.
In January 1915, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi returned to India after two decades abroad, mostly in South Africa. It was in South Africa that he developed his unique method of non-violent protest, satyagraha, promoted religious harmony, and challenged the discriminatory treatment of lower castes and women. The historian Chandran Devanesan remarked that South Africa was "the making of the Mahatma."
The India Gandhi returned to was politically much more active than the one he had left in 1893.
On Gokhale's advice, Gandhi spent his first year travelling across British India to understand the land and its people.
Gandhi's first major public appearance was at the opening of the Banaras Hindu University (BHU) in February 1916. The audience included powerful princes, wealthy philanthropists, and important Congress leaders like Annie Besant.
Instead of congratulating the attendees, Gandhi used his speech to voice his concern for the labouring poor. He pointed out the stark contrast between the "richly bedecked noblemen" present and the "millions of the poor" who were absent.
"There is no salvation for India unless you strip yourself of this jewellery and hold it in trust for your countrymen in India... Our salvation can only come through the farmer. Neither the lawyers, nor the doctors, nor the rich landlords are going to secure it."
An opportunity to put this into practice came in December 1916 at the annual Congress session in Lucknow. A peasant from Champaran, Bihar, approached him to tell him about the harsh treatment of indigo farmers by British planters.
Gandhi's initial campaigns were localized but crucial for establishing his reputation as a leader with deep sympathy for the poor.
In 1919, the British government passed the Rowlatt Act, continuing harsh wartime measures like press censorship and detention without trial. This gave Gandhi an issue to build a much wider movement.
Emboldened, Gandhi called for a campaign of "non-cooperation" with British rule. Indians were asked to boycott schools, colleges, law courts, and to not pay taxes. He promised that if this was done effectively, India would win swaraj (self-rule) within a year.
To broaden the struggle, Gandhi joined hands with the Khilafat Movement (1919-1920). Led by Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, this movement of Indian Muslims sought to restore the position of the Turkish Sultan, or Khalifa, who was seen as the head of the global Islamic community. Gandhi hoped that by combining non-cooperation with the Khilafat issue, he could unite Hindus and Muslims to end colonial rule.
The response was unprecedented:
However, in February 1922, a group of peasants attacked and burned a police station in Chauri Chaura (United Provinces), killing several policemen. This act of violence prompted Gandhi to call off the Non-Cooperation Movement entirely.
Gandhi was arrested in March 1922 and charged with sedition. The judge, Justice C.N. Broomfield, acknowledged Gandhi's status as a "great patriot and a leader" in the eyes of millions, even as he sentenced him to six years in prison.
By 1922, Gandhi had transformed Indian nationalism from a movement of professionals and intellectuals into one where hundreds of thousands of peasants, workers, and artisans participated. They revered him as their "Mahatma."
He identified with the common people in several ways:
His success was also based on careful organization. New branches of the Congress were set up, and "Praja Mandals" were established to promote nationalism in the princely states. Using mother tongues instead of English helped carry the nationalist message to the farthest corners of the country.
After his release from prison in February 1924, Gandhi focused on social reform, promoting home-spun cloth (khadi), the abolition of untouchability, and Hindu-Muslim harmony.
After a few years focused on social work, Gandhi re-entered politics around 1928. At the end of December 1929, the Congress session in Lahore made two historic decisions:
January 26, 1930, was observed as "Independence Day." Soon after, Gandhi announced his plan to lead a march to break the salt laws.
The British had a monopoly on the manufacture and sale of salt. Indians were forbidden from making their own salt, forcing them to buy it at a high price. By targeting this deeply unpopular law, Gandhi hoped to mobilize a wide-ranging discontent against British rule.
On March 12, 1930, Gandhi began walking from his ashram at Sabarmati towards the coastal village of Dandi.
The Salt March was significant for three key reasons:
In response, the British government convened a series of "Round Table Conferences" in London.
The conference was inconclusive. Gandhi returned to India and resumed civil disobedience. In 1935, the Government of India Act promised some form of representative government, and in the 1937 elections, the Congress won a comprehensive victory, forming ministries in eight out of eleven provinces.
When the Second World War broke out in September 1939, Congress leaders offered to support the British war effort in return for a promise of independence after the war. The British refused. In protest, the Congress ministries resigned in October 1939.
The political situation grew more complex. In March 1940, the Muslim League passed a resolution demanding autonomy for the Muslim-majority areas of the subcontinent. The struggle was now three-way: between the Congress, the Muslim League, and the British.
In 1942, the British government sent Sir Stafford Cripps to India to negotiate a compromise, but the talks broke down. Following the failure of the Cripps Mission, Mahatma Gandhi decided to launch his third major movement against British rule: the "Quit India" campaign.
After the war, a Labour government came to power in Britain in 1945 and committed itself to granting independence. However, the 1946 provincial elections showed a deep political polarization: the Congress swept the "General" seats, while the League won an overwhelming majority of seats reserved for Muslims.
When talks to keep India united failed, Jinnah called for a "Direct Action Day" on August 16, 1946, to press the demand for Pakistan. This led to bloody riots in Calcutta, which soon spread across the country.
In February 1947, the new Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten, announced that British India would be freed but also divided.
On August 15, 1947, India gained its freedom, but at the unacceptable price of Partition. Gandhi was not in the capital for the celebrations. He was in Calcutta, marking the day with a 24-hour fast. In the following months, he worked tirelessly to bring peace to riot-torn areas and protect minorities.
On January 30, 1948, at his daily prayer meeting in Delhi, Mahatma Gandhi was shot and killed by a young man, Nathuram Godse. His death led to a global outpouring of grief.
Historians use many different kinds of sources to reconstruct the history of the nationalist movement and Gandhi's role in it.
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