Key Points

The Revolt of 1857 began on the afternoon of 10 May 1857 in the cantonment of Meerut. Sepoys mutinied, captured the bell of arms, attacked British property, and marched towards Delhi.

On 11 May 1857, the sepoys reached the Red Fort in Delhi and proclaimed the aged Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar as their leader. This act gave the rebellion a symbol of legitimacy and unity.

The immediate cause of the revolt was the introduction of the Enfield rifle. A rumour spread that its cartridges were greased with the fat of cows and pigs, which offended the religious sentiments of both Hindu and Muslim sepoys.

The mutinies followed a similar pattern across different locations. They typically began with a signal like an evening gun, followed by the seizure of the armoury (bell of arms) and treasury, and attacks on government buildings and British officials.

There is evidence of planning and coordination among the rebels. Communication occurred between sepoy lines of different cantonments, and decisions were often taken collectively in panchayats, especially in the Kanpur sepoy lines.

Prominent leaders included Nana Sahib in Kanpur, Begum Hazrat Mahal in Lucknow, Rani Lakshmi Bai in Jhansi, Kunwar Singh in Arrah (Bihar), and local leaders like Shah Mal in Uttar Pradesh and Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah in Faizabad.

The revolt was particularly widespread in Awadh, which was annexed in 1856 by Lord Dalhousie. The annexation displaced the Nawab, dispossessed the taluqdars, and created grievances among peasants and sepoys, many of whom hailed from Awadh.

British land revenue policies, like the Summary Settlement of 1856 in Awadh, dispossessed taluqdars of their lands. Peasants were burdened with high revenue demands, and artisans were ruined by the import of British goods, contributing to widespread discontent.

The initial mutiny of sepoys quickly transformed into a general rebellion. Ordinary people, including peasants, zamindars, and tribals, joined the revolt, widening the targets of attack to include moneylenders and other symbols of oppression.

Rebel proclamations, such as the Azamgarh Proclamation, repeatedly appealed to all sections of the population, irrespective of caste or creed. They emphasized Hindu-Muslim unity against the British, harking back to the pre-British past.

The rebels aimed to overthrow the 'firangi raj' and restore the pre-British world. They sought to end oppressive land revenue systems, protect their religions from perceived threats of conversion, and regain their lost authority and livelihoods.

The British suppressed the revolt with immense force. They passed laws placing North India under martial law, giving broad powers to officials to punish rebels, often with death. The reconquest was a long and brutal process, especially in Delhi and Awadh.

British paintings and cartoons portrayed the revolt from their perspective. They celebrated British heroes like in 'Relief of Lucknow', depicted English women as victims needing protection, and justified violent retribution against the rebels.

The Indian nationalist movement later reinterpreted the revolt as the 'First War of Independence'. Leaders like Rani Lakshmi Bai were celebrated as heroic figures, inspiring future generations to fight against British rule.

Besides the greased cartridges, other rumours fueled the uprising, such as the British mixing bone dust of cows and pigs into flour. A prophecy that British rule would end on the centenary of the Battle of Plassey (June 1857) also encouraged people to act.