Chapter Notes

Through the Eyes of Travellers: Perceptions of Society (c. Tenth to Seventeenth Century)

Between the tenth and seventeenth centuries, many people travelled to the Indian subcontinent for various reasons, such as work, trade, pilgrimage, or adventure. These travellers came from different social and cultural backgrounds, which gave them a unique perspective on everyday life in India. Because local writers often took common practices for granted, the accounts of these foreign visitors are incredibly valuable for historians. They noticed and recorded details about customs, beliefs, and social life that might have otherwise been lost.

This chapter focuses on the accounts of three key travellers:

• Al-Biruni (from Uzbekistan, eleventh century)
• Ibn Battuta (from Morocco, fourteenth century)
• François Bernier (from France, seventeenth century)

Al-Biruni and the Kitab-ul-Hind

Al-Biruni was a scholar born in 973 in Khwarizm (present-day Uzbekistan), an important center of learning. He was a polyglot, well-versed in languages like Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, and Sanskrit. In 1017, when Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni invaded Khwarizm, Al-Biruni was taken to the capital, Ghazni, as a hostage. It was there that his interest in India grew.

He spent years with Brahmana priests and scholars, learning Sanskrit and studying their religious and philosophical texts. This deep study allowed him to write a remarkable book about India.

The Kitab-ul-Hind

Al-Biruni’s famous work, the Kitab-ul-Hind, was written in Arabic. It is a detailed and well-organized book with eighty chapters covering a vast range of topics:

• Religion and philosophy
• Festivals and astronomy
• Social customs and laws
• Weights and measures (metrology)

His writing style was very systematic, often described as having a "geometric structure." In many chapters, he would:

1. Start with a question.
2. Provide a description based on Sanskritic traditions.
3. Conclude by comparing the Indian practice with other cultures.

Overcoming Barriers to Understanding

Al-Biruni was very aware of the challenges he faced in understanding a completely different society. He identified three main "barriers":

1. Language: He noted that Sanskrit was vastly different from Arabic and Persian, making direct translation of ideas and concepts very difficult.
2. Religion: The differences in religious beliefs and practices were a significant hurdle.
3. Insularity: He observed a self-absorption among the local population, which he felt created a barrier to mutual understanding.

Despite these challenges, he relied almost exclusively on Brahmanical texts like the Vedas, Puranas, Bhagavad Gita, and Manusmriti to form his understanding.

Al-Biruni's Description of the Caste System

Al-Biruni tried to explain the caste system by comparing it to social divisions in other parts of the world. He pointed out that ancient Persia also had four social categories: knights and princes; monks and priests; scientists and physicians; and peasants and artisans. By doing this, he suggested that social division was not unique to India.

However, he also contrasted this with Islam, where he noted that all men were considered equal, differing only in their piety.

Based on his study of Sanskrit texts, he described the four varnas:

• Brahmana: Created from the head of Brahma, considered the highest caste.
• Kshatriya: Created from the shoulders and hands of Brahma.
• Vaishya: Created from the thigh of Brahma.
• Shudra: Created from the feet of Brahma.

While he accepted this textual description, he strongly disapproved of the concept of pollution. He argued that the idea of social pollution went against the laws of nature, where things naturally strive to regain purity, like the sun cleansing the air or salt purifying seawater.

Ibn Battuta's Rihla

Ibn Battuta, a Moroccan traveller, provides a rich account of the social and cultural life of the subcontinent in the fourteenth century. Born in Tangier to an educated family known for its expertise in Islamic religious law (shari'a), he received a formal education.

Unlike Al-Biruni, who relied on texts, Ibn Battuta believed that experience gained from travel was a more important source of knowledge. He was a passionate traveller who explored new worlds and peoples.

An Early Globe-trotter

Before arriving in India in 1332-33, Ibn Battuta had already travelled extensively through West Asia, East Africa, and Central Asia. He was drawn to India by the reputation of the Sultan of Delhi, Muhammad bin Tughlaq, who was known as a generous patron of arts and letters.

• The Sultan was impressed with Ibn Battuta's scholarship and appointed him the qazi (judge) of Delhi.
• After falling out of favor and being imprisoned for a time, he was restored to service and sent as the Sultan's envoy to the Mongol ruler in China in 1342.
• His journey took him through the Malabar coast, the Maldives (where he served as qazi), Sri Lanka, Bengal, and Assam before he finally reached China.
• He returned home to Morocco in 1354, nearly thirty years after he had first set out.

The Excitement of the Unfamiliar

Ibn Battuta had a special talent for describing things that would have been completely new to his audience. He used comparisons to help his readers visualize these novelties.

• The Coconut: He described it as resembling a man's head, with two eyes and a mouth. The green inside looked like a brain, and its fiber was like hair.
• The Paan: He explained that the betel vine was grown for its leaves, not fruit. He detailed the process of chewing it with areca nut and chalk.

Ibn Battuta and Indian Cities

Ibn Battuta found the cities in the subcontinent to be prosperous, densely populated, and full of opportunities.

• He described Delhi as a vast city with a large population and an impressive fortification wall.
• The markets (bazaars) were not just for trade but were also social and cultural hubs, with mosques, temples, and spaces for musicians, dancers, and singers.
• The prosperity of the cities was fueled by productive agriculture (often two crops a year) and a well-integrated network of trade across Asia. Indian textiles like cotton, muslin, and silk were in high demand.

A Unique System of Communication

Ibn Battuta was amazed by the efficiency of the postal system, which was crucial for both merchants and the state. There were two types:

• Uluq (horse-post): Royal horses were stationed every four miles.
• Dawa (foot-post): There were three stations per mile, with runners ready to carry mail. Each runner carried a rod with copper bells to alert the next station of his arrival.

This system was remarkably fast. News from spies could travel from Sind to Delhi in just five days, a journey that would otherwise take fifty days.

François Bernier: A Doctor with a Difference

François Bernier was a French doctor, political philosopher, and historian who travelled to the Mughal Empire in the seventeenth century. He was in India for twelve years, from 1656 to 1668, and was associated with the Mughal court as a physician to Prince Dara Shukoh and later with Danishmand Khan, a noble.

Unlike Ibn Battuta, who was fascinated by the novel, Bernier was more critical and analytical. His approach was to constantly compare what he saw in India with the situation in Europe.

The Question of Landownership

According to Bernier, the biggest difference between Mughal India and Europe was the lack of private property in land. He believed that the emperor owned all the land and distributed it among his nobles. He argued this had disastrous consequences:

• Landholders had no incentive to invest in improving the land because they couldn't pass it down to their children.
• This led to the ruin of agriculture, oppression of the peasantry, and a decline in living standards for everyone except the ruling class.
• He famously stated, "There is no middle state in India," suggesting a society of only the extremely rich and the miserably poor.

This idea of "crown ownership" was a simplification. Mughal documents, like those from Abu'l Fazl (Akbar's chronicler), suggest the state collected a tax on the crop for providing protection, not rent for owning the land. However, Bernier's account was highly influential.

His ideas shaped European thought for centuries, leading to concepts like:

• Oriental Despotism (Montesquieu): The idea that Asian rulers had absolute power over subjugated populations.
• Asiatic Mode of Production (Karl Marx): The theory that the state extracted surplus from self-sufficient village communities, leading to a stagnant society.

A More Complex Social Reality

While Bernier's main argument was that the Mughal state was tyrannical, his own descriptions sometimes hinted at a more complex reality.

• He noted that despite the supposed decline, vast quantities of gold and silver flowed into India to pay for its exports of manufactures like silks and cotton.
• He described the existence of imperial workshops, or karkhanas, where artisans like embroiderers, goldsmiths, and painters were employed.
• He also acknowledged a prosperous community of merchants.

Bernier described Mughal cities as "camp towns," meaning they existed only to serve the imperial court and would decline if the court moved away. This was another oversimplification, as India had many types of towns—manufacturing centers, trading ports, and sacred pilgrimage sites—that were supported by vibrant merchant communities and professional classes.

Women: Slaves, Sati, and Labourers

The male travellers were often intrigued by the condition of women in the subcontinent. Their accounts provide glimpses into women's lives, though often focused on what they found unusual or shocking.

Slavery

Ibn Battuta noted that slavery was widespread. Slaves were openly sold in markets and exchanged as gifts.

• He himself purchased slaves to gift to Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
• Female slaves were employed for domestic labor, as musicians and dancers in the court, and even as spies for the Sultan to keep a watch on his nobles.
• The price for female slaves for domestic work was very low, making them accessible to many families.

Sati

European travellers like Bernier often used the treatment of women as a key difference between "Western" and "Eastern" societies. He was particularly struck by the practice of sati (the immolation of a widow on her husband's funeral pyre).

• He provided a detailed, emotional account of witnessing a young widow, perhaps only twelve years old, being forced onto the pyre in Lahore.
• He noted that while some women seemed to embrace death willingly, others were clearly forced.

However, these accounts often overlooked the broader roles of women. Women's labor was crucial in agriculture and crafts. Women from merchant families were involved in commerce, and it is unlikely that all women were confined to their homes. The travellers' focus on practices like sati and slavery gives us a limited, though important, view of women's lives.