Chapter Notes

MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES

India possesses a rich variety of mineral resources thanks to its diverse geological structure. Most of these valuable minerals are found in the ancient metamorphic and igneous rocks of peninsular India, which formed in the pre-palaezoic age. In contrast, the vast alluvial plains of north India, formed by river deposits, are largely empty of economically useful minerals. These resources are crucial as they provide the foundation for the country's industrial development.

A mineral is a natural substance, which can be of organic or inorganic origin, that has specific chemical and physical properties.

Types of Mineral Resources

Based on their properties, minerals are broadly divided into two main categories: metallic and non-metallic.

• Metallic Minerals: These are the sources of metals. They are further divided into:
  • Ferrous Minerals: These minerals contain iron. The most common example is iron ore itself.
  • Non-ferrous Minerals: These minerals do not have iron content. Examples include copper and bauxite.
• Non-metallic Minerals: These do not contain metals. They can be:
  • Organic: These are also known as mineral fuels or fossil fuels. They are formed from buried animal and plant life, such as coal and petroleum.
  • Inorganic: These minerals do not come from living matter. Examples include mica, limestone, and graphite.

Characteristics of Minerals:

• They are distributed unevenly across different places.
• There is an inverse relationship between their quality and quantity; high-quality minerals are found in smaller quantities than low-quality ones.
• All minerals are exhaustible, meaning they will run out over time. They take millions of years to form geologically and cannot be replaced quickly.

Distribution of Minerals in India

In India, most metallic minerals are found in the old crystalline rocks of the peninsular plateau region. Over 97% of the country's coal reserves are located in the river valleys of the Damodar, Sone, Mahanadi, and Godavari. Petroleum reserves are mainly in the sedimentary basins of Assam, Gujarat, and Mumbai High (an offshore region in the Arabian Sea), with new reserves found in the Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basins.

A majority of India's major mineral resources are found east of a line connecting Mangaluru and Kanpur. These minerals are concentrated in three main belts.

The North-Eastern Plateau Region

This belt covers the Chhotanagpur (Jharkhand) plateau, Odisha Plateau, West Bengal, and parts of Chhattisgarh. It is incredibly rich in a variety of minerals like iron ore, coal, manganese, bauxite, and mica.

The South-Western Plateau Region

This belt stretches over Karnataka, Goa, and the nearby uplands of Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

• It is rich in ferrous metals like high-grade iron ore and manganese, as well as bauxite and limestone.
• A major drawback of this belt is the lack of coal deposits, with the exception of Neyveli lignite in Tamil Nadu.
• Kerala has significant deposits of monazite and thorium.
• Goa is known for its iron ore deposits.

The North-Western Region

This belt runs along the Aravali range in Rajasthan and includes parts of Gujarat.

• Minerals here are associated with the Dharwar system of rocks.
• Major minerals include copper and zinc.
• Rajasthan is rich in building stones such as sandstone, granite, and marble, as well as gypsum and Fuller's earth.
• Dolomite and limestone in this region supply raw materials for the cement industry.
• Gujarat is famous for its petroleum deposits, and both Gujarat and Rajasthan have rich sources of salt.

The Himalayan Belt

This is another mineral belt where minerals like copper, lead, zinc, cobalt, and tungsten are found in both the eastern and western parts. The Assam valley has mineral oil deposits, and offshore oil resources are found near the Mumbai Coast, known as Mumbai High.

Ferrous Minerals

Ferrous minerals, which contain iron, like iron ore, manganese, and chromite, provide a strong foundation for metallurgical industries. India has significant reserves and production of these minerals.

Iron Ore

India has the largest reserves of iron ore in Asia. The two main types found here are haematite and magnetite, which are of superior quality and have high demand internationally.

• Distribution: About 95% of iron ore reserves are in Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.
  • Odisha: Major mines are located in hill ranges in Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj, and Jhar. Important mines include Gurumahisani, Sulaipet, and Badampahar.
  • Jharkhand: Home to some of the oldest iron ore mines, with major mines like Noamundi and Gua in Poorbi and Pashchimi Singhbhum districts.
  • Chhattisgarh: The belt extends to Durg, Dantewara, and Bailadila. Dalli and Rajhara in Durg are important mines.
  • Karnataka: Deposits are found in the Sandur-Hospet area of Ballari district, Baba Budan hills, and Kudremukh in Chikkamagaluru district.
  • Other regions include districts in Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. Goa is also an important producer.

Manganese

Manganese is a key raw material used for smelting iron ore and manufacturing ferro-alloys. Its deposits are found in almost all geological formations but are mainly associated with the Dharwar system.

• Distribution:
  • Odisha and Madhya Pradesh are the leading producers. In Odisha, major mines are in the central part of the iron ore belt (Bonai, Kendujhar, Sundergarh).
  • In Madhya Pradesh, the manganese belt covers the districts of Balaghat-Chhindwara-Nimar-Mandla and Jhabua.
  • Karnataka is another major producer, with mines in Dharwar, Ballari, and Belagavi.
  • Maharashtra mines manganese in Nagpur, Bhandara, and Ratnagiri districts, but these mines are located far from steel plants, which is a disadvantage.
  • Telangana, Goa, and Jharkhand are minor producers.

Non-Ferrous Minerals

India does not have large reserves of non-ferrous metallic minerals, with the exception of bauxite.

Bauxite

Bauxite is the ore from which aluminium is manufactured. It is mainly found in tertiary deposits associated with laterite rocks on plateaus and hill ranges in peninsular India and coastal areas.

• Distribution:
  • Odisha is the largest producer of bauxite, with Kalahandi and Sambalpur as leading producers.
  • Jharkhand has rich deposits in the patlands of Lohardaga.
  • Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra are other major producers. Chhattisgarh has deposits on the Amarkantak plateau.
  • Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Goa are minor producers.

Copper

Copper is essential for the electrical industry, used for making wires, electric motors, transformers, and generators. It is alloyable, malleable, and ductile.

• Distribution: Major deposits are found in:
  • Singhbhum district in Jharkhand.
  • Balaghat district in Madhya Pradesh.
  • Jhunjhunu and Alwar districts in Rajasthan.
• Minor production occurs in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.

Non-metallic Minerals

Among non-metallic minerals, mica is the most important one produced in India. Others like limestone, dolomite, and phosphate are extracted for local use.

Mica

Mica is primarily used in the electrical and electronic industries because it can be split into very thin sheets that are both tough and flexible.

• Distribution:
  • Jharkhand: High-quality mica is found in a belt on the lower Hazaribagh plateau.
  • Andhra Pradesh: Nellore district produces the best quality mica.
  • Rajasthan: A mica belt extends from Jaipur to Bhilwara and around Udaipur.
  • Other deposits are found in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra, and West Bengal.

Energy Resources

Mineral fuels are vital for generating power for agriculture, industry, and transport. These are divided into conventional and non-conventional sources. Conventional sources like coal, petroleum, natural gas, and nuclear energy are exhaustible.

Coal

Coal is a crucial mineral used mainly for generating thermal power and for smelting iron ore. It is found in rock sequences of two main geological ages: Gondwana and tertiary.

• Gondwana Coal: About 80% of India's coal is of bituminous type and is of non-coking grade. The most important fields are in the Damodar Valley in the Jharkhand-Bengal coal belt.
  • Jharia is the largest coalfield, followed by Raniganj.
  • Other important coal mining centres are Singrauli (Madhya Pradesh), Korba (Chhattisgarh), and Talcher (Odisha).
• Tertiary Coal: These deposits are found in the northeastern states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, and Nagaland.
• Lignite (Brown Coal): This occurs in the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Gujarat, and Jammu and Kashmir.

Petroleum

Crude petroleum is a source of energy for engines in automobiles, railways, and aircraft. Its by-products are used in petrochemical industries to make fertilizers, synthetic rubber, medicines, and cosmetics.

• Formation and Exploration: Crude petroleum is found in sedimentary rocks of the tertiary period. Systematic exploration began after the Oil and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC) was set up in 1956.
• Distribution:
  • Assam: Digboi (the oldest oil-producing region), Naharkatiya, and Moran.
  • Gujarat: Ankaleshwar, Kalol, Mehsana, and others.
  • Mumbai High: An offshore field discovered in 1973, about 160 km off the Mumbai coast.
  • East Coast: New deposits have been found in the Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basins.
• Refineries: Crude oil must be refined. Refineries are of two types:
  • Field-based: Located near the oil field (e.g., Digboi).
  • Market-based: Located near the market where the products will be sold (e.g., Barauni).

Natural Gas

Natural gas is found with petroleum deposits. It is a clean fuel used for domestic and industrial purposes, generating electricity, and as a raw material in chemical and fertilizer industries.

• Uses: It is emerging as a preferred transport fuel (CNG) and cooking fuel (PNG).
• Distribution: Major reserves are in Mumbai High and the Cambay basin on the west coast. New reserves have been discovered in the Krishna-Godavari basin on the east coast.

Non-Conventional Energy Sources

These are renewable, more evenly distributed, and environment-friendly energy sources like solar, wind, hydro, geothermal, and biomass. They provide a sustainable alternative to exhaustible fossil fuels.

Nuclear Energy Resources

Nuclear energy is generated using minerals like uranium and thorium.

• Uranium: Deposits are found in Dharwar rocks, along the Singbhum Copper belt (Jharkhand), and in districts of Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, and Himachal Pradesh.
• Thorium: Mainly obtained from monazite in the beach sands of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The world's richest monazite deposits are in Palakkad and Kollam districts of Kerala.
• Nuclear Power Projects: Important projects include Tarapur (Maharashtra), Rawatbhata (Rajasthan), Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), Narora (Uttar Pradesh), Kaiga (Karnataka), and Kakarapara (Gujarat).

Solar Energy

Solar energy is created by converting sun rays into energy using photovoltaic cells or solar thermal technology.

• Advantages: It is cost-competitive, environmentally friendly, and easy to construct. It is more effective than coal, oil, or nuclear plants.
• Potential: The western parts of India, particularly Gujarat and Rajasthan, have great potential for developing solar energy.

Wind Energy

Wind energy is a completely pollution-free and inexhaustible source of energy. The kinetic energy of wind is converted into electrical energy using turbines.

• Potential: Favourable conditions for wind energy exist in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Karnataka.

Tidal and Wave Energy

Ocean currents and tidal waves are a huge store-house of energy. India has great potential for developing tidal energy along its west coast, but so far, it has not been utilized.

Geothermal Energy

This energy is tapped from the tremendous heat released when magma from the Earth's interior comes to the surface. Hot springs and geysers are also used.

• Plant in India: A geothermal energy plant has been commissioned at Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh.

Bio-energy

Bio-energy is derived from biological products like agricultural residues, municipal waste, and industrial waste. It can be converted into electricity, heat, or gas for cooking.

• Benefits: It helps process waste, reduces pollution, improves the economy of rural areas, and reduces pressure on fuel wood.
• Example: A project converting municipal waste into energy is located at Okhla in Delhi.

Conservation of Mineral Resources

Sustainable development requires balancing economic growth with environmental protection.

• Need for Conservation: Traditional resource use generates enormous waste and environmental problems. To protect resources for future generations, conservation is urgent.
• Methods for Conservation:
  1. Develop alternative, inexhaustible energy sources like solar, wind, and geothermal power.
  2. Recycle metals by using scrap. This is particularly important for metals like copper, lead, and zinc, for which India has meagre reserves.
  3. Use substitutes for scarce metals to reduce their consumption.
  4. Reduce the export of strategic and scarce minerals to make existing reserves last longer.