Social Institutions: Continuity and ChangeClass 12 Indian Society NCERT Solutions
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Q1Questions
What is the role of the ideasof separation and hierarchy in the caste system?
Solution
The caste system is theoretically understood through the combination of two core principles: difference and separation, and wholism and hierarchy.
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Separation and Difference: This principle dictates that each caste must be distinct and strictly separated from every other caste. This separation is maintained through a set of rules designed to prevent the mixing of castes. Key rules include:
- Endogamy: Marriage is restricted to members within the same caste group.
- Food Sharing: There are prescriptions on what kind of food may be eaten and with whom one can share food.
- Social Interaction: Rules govern social contact between different castes.
- Occupation: Castes were traditionally linked to specific, hereditary occupations, preventing members of other castes from entering that profession.
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Wholism and Hierarchy: This principle states that different castes do not exist in isolation but are part of a larger societal whole. This whole is not egalitarian but is arranged in a distinct hierarchy.
- Every caste has a specific rank in a ladder-like structure, from highest to lowest.
- This hierarchy is based on the distinction between 'purity' and 'pollution'. Castes considered ritually pure have a high status, while those considered impure have a low status.
- The system functions as a social division of labour where each caste's role is complementary and non-competing, ensuring the functioning of the societal whole.
Q2Questions
What are some of the rules that the caste system imposes?
Solution
The caste system imposes a number of strict rules that govern the social, economic, and personal lives of its members. The most common defining features and rules are:
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Determined by Birth: A person's caste is ascribed at birth, based on the caste of their parents. It is not a matter of choice, and one cannot change or leave their caste.
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Endogamy: Membership in a caste involves strict rules about marriage, requiring individuals to marry within their own caste group.
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Rules on Food and Food-Sharing: The system prescribes the kinds of food that are permissible or forbidden for a caste to consume. It also specifies rules about who can share food with whom.
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Hierarchy of Rank and Status: The system arranges all castes into a hierarchy. Every person has a caste, and every caste has a specific place in this hierarchical order, ranging from the highest to the lowest status.
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Segmental Organisation: Castes are internally divided into sub-castes, and these sub-castes may be further divided. This creates a segmented structure within the broader caste identity.
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Hereditary Occupation: Traditionally, castes were linked to specific occupations. A person born into a caste could only practice the occupation associated with it, and these occupations were passed down from one generation to the next.
Q3Questions
What c hanges did colonia lism bring a bout in the caste system?
Solution
Colonialism brought about fundamental changes in the institution of caste, to the extent that some scholars argue that the modern form of caste is more a product of colonialism than of ancient Indian tradition. Key changes include:
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Systematic Data Collection: The British administration, in its effort to govern efficiently, began methodical and intensive surveys on the 'customs and manners' of various castes and tribes. This was the first time such comprehensive data was collected.
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The Census and Solidification of Caste: The most significant colonial intervention was the census, which began in the 1860s and became a regular ten-yearly exercise from 1881. The 1901 Census, under Herbert Risley, was particularly impactful as it sought to officially collect information on the social hierarchy of castes. This direct attempt to count and officially record caste status had several effects:
- It made caste identities more rigid and less fluid than they had been previously.
- It prompted representatives of different castes to submit petitions claiming a higher rank in the social hierarchy, thereby intensifying caste consciousness.
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Legal Recognition: The colonial administration also took an interest in the welfare of 'depressed classes'. The Government of India Act of 1935 gave legal recognition to lists or 'schedules' of castes and tribes that were marked for special treatment. This led to the creation of the official categories of 'Scheduled Castes' and 'Scheduled Tribes'.
Q4Questions
In what sense hascaste become relatively 'invisible' for the urban upper castes?
Solution
Caste has become 'invisible' for the urban upper castes in the contemporary period because their privileged status, secured through the caste system, is now self-sustaining and no longer appears to be linked to caste.
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Historical Advantage: The upper castes benefited the most from the developmental policies of the post-colonial era. Their historical caste status had already provided them with the necessary economic and educational resources to take full advantage of new opportunities.
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Consolidation of Privilege: They were able to benefit from subsidised public education, especially in professional fields like science, technology, and medicine, and also from the expansion of public sector jobs. Their initial lead in education ensured they faced little competition.
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Perception of Meritocracy: As this privileged status was consolidated over two or three generations, these groups began to believe that their advancement was due to individual merit and hard work, not their caste background. Their accumulated economic and educational capital is now sufficient to ensure their life chances, making their caste identity seem irrelevant to their success in the public sphere.
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Privatisation of Caste: For this group, caste now appears to be a factor only in their personal lives, such as in matters of religious practice or marriage. In their public and professional lives, they do not perceive caste as playing a role, precisely because it has already done its work so effectively for them.
Q5Questions
How have tribes been classified in India?
Solution
Tribes in India have been classified based on two main sets of characteristics: 'permanent traits' and 'acquired traits'.
1. Permanent Traits: These are inherent characteristics of tribal communities.
- Region: About 85% of the tribal population is concentrated in 'middle India' (from Gujarat to West Bengal), over 11% is in the North-Eastern states, and the rest is dispersed elsewhere.
- Language: Tribes are categorised into four language groups: Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Austric, and Tibeto-Burman. The latter two are spoken almost exclusively by tribals.
- Physical Characteristics: In racial terms, tribes are classified under Negrito, Australoid, Mongoloid, Dravidian, and Aryan categories.
- Size: Tribal communities vary greatly in size, from large tribes like the Gonds and Bhils (numbering in the millions) to small groups like some Andamanese islanders (numbering less than a hundred).
2. Acquired Traits: These classifications are based on adopted characteristics.
- Mode of Livelihood: Tribes are categorised based on their primary economic activity, such as fishermen, food gatherers and hunters, shifting cultivators, peasants, and plantation or industrial workers.
- Extent of Incorporation into Hindu Society: This is the dominant mode of classification. It assesses tribes based on their degree of assimilation into mainstream Hindu society. This can be viewed from the tribe's perspective (attitude towards Hinduism) or the mainstream's perspective (the status accorded to them within Hindu society).
Q6Questions
What evidence would you offer aga inst the view that 'tribes a re primitive c ommunities living isola ted lives untouched by civilisa tion'?
Solution
The view that tribes are primitive, isolated communities is a misconception, and there is significant historical and sociological evidence to counter it.
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Historical Evidence of Tribal Kingdoms: Adivasis were not always oppressed or isolated. There were several powerful Gond kingdoms in Central India, such as Garha Mandla and Chanda. Furthermore, many Rajput kingdoms in central and western India emerged through stratification processes within adivasi communities themselves.
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Interaction and Dominance: Far from being isolated, adivasi communities often interacted with plains people. They sometimes exercised dominance through raids and by serving as local militias. They also occupied a special niche in trade, dealing in forest produce, salt, and elephants.
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Diversified Livelihoods: The idea of tribes as solely hunter-gatherers is inaccurate. Many large tribes like the Santhals, Gonds, and Bhils are spread over extensive territories and are not isolated. Tribes like the Munda and Hos have long practiced settled agriculture. Even hunter-gatherer communities like the Birhors have specialised households for making crafts or processing oil.
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Long-standing Contact with the Mainstream: The expansion of the capitalist economy, starting in the colonial era, has brought tribal societies into contact with the mainstream for a long time. The drive to exploit forest resources, minerals, and recruit cheap labour has ensured that these communities are not untouched by the wider world.
Q7Questions
What a re the factors behind the assertion of tribal identities today?
Solution
The assertion of tribal identities today is driven by a combination of historical interactions, economic pressures, and the emergence of a new social class within tribal communities.
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Response to Mainstream Interaction: Tribal identities are largely formed through their interaction with the non-tribal mainstream. This interaction has generally been on unfavorable terms, leading to exploitation and dispossession. As a result, many tribal identities are now centered on ideas of resistance and opposition to the overwhelming force of the non-tribal world.
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Control over Economic Resources: A primary driver for tribal movements and identity assertion is the struggle for control over vital resources like land and forests. National development projects, such as dams, mines, and factories, have often been located in tribal areas, leading to the displacement of tribals and the loss of their livelihoods without adequate compensation.
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Assertion of Ethnic-Cultural Identity: Alongside economic issues, there is a strong push to protect and assert distinct ethnic and cultural identities. This is a response to the threat of being overwhelmed and assimilated by mainstream culture.
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Emergence of an Educated Middle Class: A significant new factor is the gradual emergence of an educated, urbanised, professional middle class among tribal communities. This class, often a product of modern education and reservation policies, has become a key force in articulating tribal identity. They raise issues of culture, tradition, and livelihood, and demand a share in the benefits of modernity, leading to a 'new consciousness' and a more organised assertion of tribal rights and identity.
Q8Questions
What are some of the different forms that the family can take?
Solution
The family is a diverse social institution that can take various forms based on its structure, rules of residence, inheritance, and authority. Some of the different forms are:
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Based on Structure and Composition:
- Nuclear Family: Consists of one set of parents and their children.
- Extended Family (or 'Joint Family'): Comprises more than one couple, often spanning two or more generations living together. This can include a set of brothers with their individual families, or an elderly couple with their sons, grandsons, and their respective families.
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Based on Rule of Residence (after marriage):
- Patrilocal: The newly married couple lives with the man's parents.
- Matrilocal: The newly married couple stays with the woman's parents.
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Based on Rules of Inheritance:
- Patrilineal: Property is passed down from father to son.
- Matrilineal: Property is passed on from mother to daughter.
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Based on Authority:
- Patriarchal: Men exercise authority and dominance within the family structure.
- Matriarchal: Women play the dominant role. The text notes that this is a theoretical concept, as there is no historical or anthropological evidence of a truly matriarchal society.
Q9Questions
In what wayscan changesin social structure lead to changes in the family struc ture?
Solution
Changes in the broader social structure, such as in the economic, political, or cultural spheres, are directly linked to changes in the family structure. The family is not an isolated unit but is deeply connected to other institutions in society. Some ways these changes are linked are:
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Economic Changes and Migration: Economic developments can alter family composition. For example, the migration of men from villages in the Himalayan region in search of work has led to an unusual proportion of women-headed families in those villages. The family structure changes from a nuclear or extended family with a male head to one headed by a woman.
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New Forms of Employment: The rise of new industries and work patterns can impact family arrangements. For instance, the demanding work schedules of young parents in the software industry may lead to an increase in the number of grandparents moving in to act as caregivers for their grandchildren. This changes a nuclear family into a multi-generational, extended one.
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Cultural and Normative Changes: Shifts in cultural ideas and values can also reshape the family. When young people decide to choose their own spouses instead of accepting arranged marriages, it alters traditional decision-making processes within the family. Similarly, the open expression of same-sex love challenges conventional definitions of marriage and family.
These examples show that the family is a dynamic institution that adapts and changes in response to transformations in the wider society.
Q10Questions
Explain the difference between matriliny and matriarchy.
Solution
Matriliny and matriarchy are two distinct concepts related to the structure of family and society, often confused with each other. The key difference lies in what they describe: inheritance versus authority.
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Matriliny:
- Focus: It refers to the rule of inheritance and descent.
- Definition: In a matrilineal society, property is passed down from the mother to the daughter. The line of descent is traced through the female line.
- Empirical Reality: Matrilineal societies exist in reality. The textbook provides evidence for their existence.
- Limitation: It is important to note that in these societies, while women inherit property, they do not necessarily exercise control over it or hold positions of power and decision-making in public affairs.
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Matriarchy:
- Focus: It refers to the structure of power and authority.
- Definition: Matriarchy describes a society or family structure where women exercise authority and dominance, holding the primary power roles in a way that is analogous to men in a patriarchy.
- Empirical Reality: The textbook states that matriarchy is a 'theoretical rather than an empirical concept'. There is no known historical or anthropological evidence of any society that has been a true matriarchy.
In summary, the fundamental difference is that matriliny is a real system of inheritance through the female line, while matriarchy is a theoretical concept of female-dominated rule for which there is no evidence.