Challenge of building democracy
After achieving independence amidst difficult circumstances like Partition, India's leaders faced the challenge of establishing a democratic political system. Many other newly independent countries, facing similar challenges of nation-building, chose non-democratic paths. Their leaders argued that national unity was the top priority and that democracy would create conflict. These nations often experienced:
- One-party rule
- Rule by a single leader
- Direct army rule
These non-democratic regimes usually promised to restore democracy soon, but once in power, they became very difficult to remove.
India's leaders, however, chose the more difficult path of democracy. This decision was rooted in the freedom struggle, which was deeply committed to democratic ideals. They saw politics not as a problem, but as a way to solve problems and pursue the public interest.
The Indian Constitution was adopted on 26 November 1949 and came into effect on 26 January 1950. With the rules laid down, the next step was to install the country's first democratically elected government.
- The Election Commission of India was set up in January 1950.
- Sukumar Sen became the first Chief Election Commissioner.
- The first general elections were initially expected to happen in 1950.
The First General Election: A Mammoth Exercise
The Election Commission soon realized that holding free and fair elections in a country of India's size was a massive task. Several major challenges emerged:
- Delimitation: Drawing the boundaries of electoral constituencies across the vast country took a lot of time.
- Preparing Electoral Rolls: Creating a list of all eligible voters was a monumental exercise. The first draft was flawed, as the names of nearly 40 lakh women were not properly recorded. They were listed only as "wife of..." or "daughter of...". The Election Commission refused to accept these entries and ordered revisions.
- Unprecedented Scale: No election on this scale had ever been conducted in the world before.
- There were 17 crore eligible voters.
- They had to elect about 3,200 MLAs and 489 Members of Lok Sabha.
- Only 15 per cent of these voters were literate.
Note
India's decision to hold elections based on universal adult franchise (giving all adults the right to vote) was a bold and risky experiment, especially in a poor and largely illiterate country. At the time, even many European countries had not granted voting rights to all women.
This experiment was met with skepticism. An Indian editor called it "the biggest gamble in history," while a British member of the Indian Civil Service called it an "absurd farce."
The 1952 Election
The elections had to be postponed twice and were finally held from October 1951 to February 1952. Because most of the voting took place in January 1952, it is referred to as the 1952 election.
- Duration: The entire process of campaigning, polling, and counting took six months.
- Participation: More than half of the eligible voters turned out to vote.
- Fairness: The results were accepted as fair even by the losing parties.
The success of the 1952 election was a landmark in the history of democracy worldwide. It proved that democracy could be practiced in conditions of poverty and illiteracy, confounding all its critics.
Changing methods of voting
The way people voted in India has changed significantly over time.
- First General Election: A separate box was placed inside each polling booth for each candidate, marked with their election symbol. Voters were given a blank ballot paper, which they dropped into the box of the candidate they chose. About 20 lakh steel boxes were used for this purpose.
- After the first two elections: This method was changed. A single ballot paper was used, which carried the names and symbols of all candidates. Voters had to put a stamp on the name of the candidate they wanted to vote for. This method was used for nearly forty years.
- Late 1990s onwards: The Election Commission began using the Electronic Voting Machine (EVM). By 2004, the entire country had shifted to the EVM system.
Congress dominance in the first three general elections
The results of the first general election were not surprising. The Indian National Congress was widely expected to win for several key reasons:
- Legacy of the National Movement: The Congress party was seen as the inheritor of the freedom struggle.
- Widespread Organisation: It was the only party with an organizational structure spread across the entire country.
- Popular Leadership: The party had the most popular and charismatic leader in Indian politics, Jawaharlal Nehru, who led the campaign.
The Congress party won a massive victory, securing 364 of the 489 seats in the first Lok Sabha. The Communist Party of India (CPI) came in a distant second with only 16 seats. The Congress also dominated the state elections held at the same time, forming governments in almost all states. As expected, Jawaharlal Nehru became the first Prime Minister.
This dominance continued in the next two general elections:
- In the second general election (1957) and the third general election (1962), the Congress maintained its position in the Lok Sabha, winning three-fourths of the seats.
- No opposition party could win even one-tenth of the number of seats won by the Congress.
The Role of the Electoral System
The extent of the Congress's victory was boosted by the first-past-the-post (FPTP) electoral system used in India. In this system, the candidate who gets more votes than any other candidate in a constituency wins, even if they don't get a majority of the votes.
Example
In 1952, the Congress party won 74 per cent of the seats despite getting only 45 per cent of the total votes. In contrast, the Socialist Party secured more than 10 per cent of the national vote but won less than 3 per cent of the seats. This happened because the non-Congress votes were split among many different rival parties and candidates, allowing the Congress candidate to win even without a majority.
Communist victory in Kerala
A significant exception to Congress dominance occurred in Kerala in 1957. In the state assembly elections, the Communist Party of India (CPI) won the largest number of seats (60 out of 126) and formed a coalition government with the support of five independents.
- E. M. S. Namboodiripad became the Chief Minister.
- This was the first time in the world that a Communist party government had come to power through democratic elections.
After losing power, the Congress party in the state launched a 'liberation struggle' against the elected government. In 1959, the Congress government at the Centre dismissed the Communist government in Kerala under Article 356 of the Constitution. This move was highly controversial and is often cited as an early instance of the misuse of constitutional emergency powers.
Nature of Congress dominance
India was not the only country to experience one-party dominance, but its case was unique.
- In other countries (like China, Cuba, Syria, or formerly Mexico and Taiwan), one-party rule was often enforced by compromising democracy through legal or military measures.
- In India, the dominance of the Congress happened under fully democratic conditions. Multiple parties contested in free and fair elections, but the Congress consistently won.
Note
The democratic nature of Congress's dominance in India was a key feature that set it apart from one-party systems in many other parts of the world.
The roots of this success lay in its role in the freedom struggle, its well-organized structure, and its 'first off the blocks' advantage, as it had already established a national network by the time other parties were just being formed.
Congress as social and ideological coalition
The Congress party's strength came from its inclusive and coalitional nature, which developed during the freedom struggle.
- Social Coalition: Originally a party of English-speaking, upper-caste, urban elites, the Congress transformed into a mass movement. It brought together diverse and often contradictory groups: peasants and industrialists, urban and rural dwellers, workers and owners, and people from all classes and castes. By Independence, it was a "rainbow-like social coalition" representing India's diversity.
- Ideological Coalition: The Congress was also a platform for a wide range of political beliefs. It accommodated revolutionaries and pacifists, conservatives and radicals, and ideologies from the right, left, and center.
Example
Before independence, many other political groups, like the Congress Socialist Party, were allowed to exist and function within the broader Congress organization.
Tolerance and management of factions
This coalition-like character gave the Congress unusual strength and defined its internal politics.
- Inclusiveness: As a coalition, Congress had to avoid extreme positions and seek balance, compromise, and consensus. This made it difficult for opposition parties to challenge it, as their platforms were often already represented within the Congress.
- Internal Factions: The party tolerated and even encouraged internal groups known as factions. These factions were often based on personal rivalries or ideological differences.
Instead of being a weakness, this internal factionalism became a strength. It allowed different interests and leaders to remain within the Congress and compete for influence, rather than leaving to form new opposition parties. This internal competition served as a balancing mechanism.
Note
For the first decade of electoral politics, the Congress acted as both the ruling party and the opposition. Political competition primarily took place within the Congress party. This unique situation is often described as the 'Congress system'.
Emergence of opposition parties
Although the Congress was dominant, India had a vibrant and diverse set of opposition parties right from the beginning. While they only gained a token representation in Parliament and state assemblies, they played a crucial role:
- They offered sustained and principled criticism of Congress policies, keeping the ruling party in check.
- They kept the democratic political alternative alive.
- They prevented public resentment from turning anti-democratic.
- They groomed leaders who would later shape the country's politics.
In the early years, there was significant mutual respect between Congress leaders and the opposition. Leaders like Dr. Ambedkar and Shyama Prasad Mukherjee were part of Nehru's first cabinet despite being political opponents.
The Socialist Party (SP)
- Origins: The Socialist Party originated from the Congress Socialist Party (CSP), which was formed within the Congress in 1934 by young leaders who wanted a more radical and egalitarian Congress. In 1948, the Congress forced its members to give up dual party membership, leading the socialists to form a separate party.
- Ideology: The socialists believed in democratic socialism, which distinguished them from both the capitalist-leaning policies of the Congress and the revolutionary violence advocated by Communists at the time.
- Challenges: The party faced a dilemma when the Congress itself declared its goal to be a 'socialist pattern of society' in 1955, making it hard for the socialists to present a distinct alternative.
- Leaders and Legacy: Key leaders included Jayaprakash Narayan, Rammanohar Lohia, and Asoka Mehta. The party underwent many splits and reunions, and its legacy can be seen in contemporary parties like the Samajwadi Party and the Janata Dal.
The Communist Party of India (CPI)
- Origins: Inspired by the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, communist groups emerged in India in the early 1920s. From 1935, they worked mainly from within the Congress. They parted ways in 1941 when they decided to support the British in the war against Nazi Germany.
- Post-Independence: The CPI initially believed that the 1947 transfer of power was not true independence and encouraged violent uprisings, which failed to gain popular support.
- Electoral Politics: In 1951, the party abandoned the path of violent revolution and decided to participate in elections. It emerged as the largest opposition party in the first general election with 16 seats. Its support was concentrated in states like Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, and Kerala.
- Split: The party experienced a major split in 1964 due to an ideological rift between the Soviet Union and China. The pro-Soviet faction remained the CPI, while the opponents formed the CPI(M).
- Leaders: Notable leaders included A. K. Gopalan, S.A. Dange, E.M.S. Namboodiripad, and P.C. Joshi.
Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS)
- Formation: The Bharatiya Jana Sangh was formed in 1951, with Shyama Prasad Mukherjee as its founder-President. Its origins can be traced to the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and the Hindu Mahasabha.
- Ideology: The Jana Sangh's ideology was distinct from other parties. It emphasized the idea of one country, one culture, and one nation, believing that India could become strong and modern based on its own culture and traditions.
- Key Policies:
- It called for the reunion of India and Pakistan in Akhand Bharat.
- It agitated to replace English with Hindi as the official language.
- It opposed concessions to religious and cultural minorities.
- It advocated for India to develop nuclear weapons.
- Electoral Performance: In the 1950s, the BJS remained on the margins of electoral politics, securing only 3 Lok Sabha seats in 1952 and 4 in 1957. Its support came mainly from Hindi-speaking states like Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Delhi, and Uttar Pradesh.
- Leaders and Legacy: Its leaders included Shyama Prasad Mukherjee, Deen Dayal Upadhyaya, and Balraj Madhok. The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) traces its roots to the BJS.