Chapter Notes

International Context

When India became an independent nation in 1947, it entered a world full of challenges. The world was still recovering from a devastating war and trying to build new international institutions. At the same time, the era of colonialism was ending, leading to the birth of many new countries like India. These new nations faced the difficult tasks of ensuring the welfare of their people and establishing democracy.

India had its own specific problems to deal with:

• The British government had left behind several unresolved international disputes.
• The Partition of the country created immense pressure and new conflicts.
• The urgent need to lift millions of people out of poverty was a major domestic challenge.

It was within this complex global and domestic environment that India had to shape its foreign policy. As a nation born in the shadow of a world war, India's main foreign policy goal was to respect the sovereignty of all other nations and to maintain peace. This principle is even reflected in the Directive Principles of State Policy in the Indian Constitution.

The foreign policy of any nation is influenced by both its internal situation and the international environment. Developing countries, often lacking resources, tend to have more modest goals than powerful states. They usually focus on peace and development in their own regions. After World War II, the world split into two major camps: one led by the United States and its western allies, and the other led by the Soviet Union. Many developing nations, dependent on aid, aligned themselves with one of these powerful blocs. India, however, chose a different path.

The Constitutional Principles

Article 51 of the Indian Constitution outlines the country's commitment to international relations. It states that "The State shall endeavour to":

• Promote international peace and security.
• Maintain just and honourable relations between nations.
• Foster respect for international law and treaty obligations.
• Encourage the settlement of international disputes by arbitration.

The Policy of Non-alignment

India's struggle for independence was part of a global movement against colonialism and imperialism. This experience deeply influenced its foreign policy. When India became free, the Cold War was just beginning. This was a period of intense political, economic, and military rivalry between the two superpowers, the US and the USSR, and their respective allies. India's leaders had to protect the country's interests in this divided world. The policy they chose was non-alignment.

Nehru's Role

India's first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, played a pivotal role in shaping the country's foreign policy from 1946 to 1964. Since he was also the Foreign Minister, he had a profound influence on its formulation and implementation.

Nehru's foreign policy had three main objectives:

1. To preserve India's hard-earned sovereignty.
2. To protect its territorial integrity.
3. To promote rapid economic development.

Nehru believed that the strategy of non-alignment was the best way to achieve these goals. However, not everyone in India agreed. Some leaders, like Dr. Ambedkar, and political parties like the Bharatiya Jan Sangh and the Swatantra Party, felt that India should align with the US bloc because it was seen as pro-democracy. Despite this, Nehru had considerable freedom in shaping foreign policy.

Distance from Two Camps

Through its policy of non-alignment, India aimed to create a peaceful world by reducing Cold War tensions. It did this by refusing to join the two major military alliances of the era: the US-led North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact.

This was a difficult balancing act.

• In 1956, when Britain attacked Egypt over the Suez Canal, India led the global protest against this act of neo-colonialism.
• However, in the same year, when the USSR invaded Hungary, India did not join in the public condemnation.

Despite such inconsistencies, India largely maintained an independent stand on international issues. This position allowed it to receive aid and assistance from both blocs. While India promoted non-alignment, its neighbour Pakistan joined the US-led military alliances. The US was not pleased with India's independent foreign policy and its growing friendship with the Soviet Union, which led to uneasy relations between India and the US during the 1950s.

Afro-Asian Unity

Nehru envisioned a major role for India in world affairs, particularly in Asia. His leadership was crucial in building connections between India and other newly independent nations in Asia and Africa.

Key moments in promoting Afro-Asian unity include:

• Asian Relations Conference (March 1947): India convened this conference five months before its own independence to foster unity among Asian nations.
• Support for Indonesian Freedom (1949): India organised an international conference to support Indonesia's struggle for freedom from Dutch colonial rule.
• Bandung Conference (1955): This conference, held in the Indonesian city of Bandung, was a high point of India's engagement with new Asian and African nations. It strongly opposed colonialism and racism, especially apartheid in South Africa.

The Bandung Conference was a crucial step that led to the establishment of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). The first NAM Summit was held in Belgrade in September 1961, and Nehru was one of its co-founders.

Peace and Conflict with China

Initially, independent India's relationship with China started on a friendly note. After the Chinese revolution in 1949, India was one of the first countries to recognise the new communist government. Nehru believed in helping this new government find its place on the world stage.

A significant step towards a stronger relationship was the joint signing of Panchsheel, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, by Prime Minister Nehru and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai on 29 April 1954. However, some Indian leaders, like Vallabhbhai Patel, were wary of potential Chinese aggression.

The Tibet Issue

The relationship between India and China became strained over the issue of Tibet.

1. In 1950, China took control of Tibet, removing a historical buffer between the two countries. India did not openly oppose this at first.
2. As reports of the suppression of Tibetan culture grew, the Indian government became uneasy.
3. In 1959, the Tibetan spiritual leader, the Dalai Lama, fled an armed uprising in Tibet and sought political asylum in India, which was granted.
4. The Chinese government strongly protested, accusing India of allowing anti-China activities from its soil.

The Chinese Invasion, 1962

Two major issues led to the 1962 war: the asylum granted to the Dalai Lama and a border dispute.

• Boundary Dispute: China claimed two areas within Indian territory: the Aksai-chin area in Ladakh and much of what was then called NEFA (North Eastern Frontier Agency), now Arunachal Pradesh. China rejected the boundary lines established during the colonial era. Between 1957 and 1959, China occupied the Aksai-chin area and built a strategic road there.

In October 1962, China launched a swift and massive invasion in both disputed regions.

• The Chinese forces captured some key areas in Arunachal Pradesh and advanced nearly to the Assam plains in the east.
• Indian forces were able to block Chinese advances on the western front in Ladakh.
• Eventually, China declared a unilateral ceasefire and withdrew its troops.

Consequences of the 1962 War:

• National Humiliation: The war dented India's image at home and abroad and created a sense of national humiliation, while also strengthening nationalism.
• Military Assistance: India had to seek military aid from the US and Britain. The Soviet Union remained neutral.
• Political Fallout: The then Defence Minister, V. Krishna Menon, had to resign. Nehru's own image suffered due to his misjudgment of Chinese intentions and lack of military preparedness. A no-confidence motion was moved against his government for the first time.
• Impact on Opposition: The war led to a split in the Communist Party of India (CPI) in 1964. The pro-USSR faction remained in the CPI, while the other faction, closer to China, formed the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI-M).
• Focus on the Northeast: The war alerted Indian leaders to the vulnerability of the Northeast region, leading to its political reorganisation. Nagaland was granted statehood, while Manipur and Tripura were given legislative assemblies.

Sino-Indian Relations Since 1962

It took over a decade for relations between India and China to normalise.

• Full diplomatic relations were restored in 1976.
• Atal Behari Vajpayee, as External Affairs Minister, was the first top-level leader to visit China in 1979.
• Rajiv Gandhi was the first Prime Minister after Nehru to visit China.
• Since then, the focus has shifted more towards trade relations between the two countries.

Wars and Peace with Pakistan

Conflict with Pakistan began almost immediately after Partition, primarily over the dispute on Jammu and Kashmir.

Early Cooperation and Conflict

Despite the Kashmir conflict, there were instances of cooperation.

• Both governments worked to restore women who were abducted during Partition.
• A major dispute over sharing river waters was resolved with the help of the World Bank, leading to the signing of the India-Pakistan Indus Waters Treaty in 1960 by Nehru and General Ayub Khan. This treaty has remained effective despite ongoing tensions.

The 1965 War

A more serious armed conflict broke out in 1965.

• In April, Pakistan launched attacks in the Rann of Kutch area of Gujarat.
• This was followed by a larger offensive in Jammu and Kashmir, where Pakistani rulers wrongly hoped for support from the local population.
• Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri ordered a counter-offensive on the Punjab border, and the Indian army reached close to Lahore.
• The war ended with UN intervention and the signing of the Tashkent Agreement in January 1966 between Shastri and Ayub Khan, with the Soviet Union as the mediator. The war placed a heavy burden on India's difficult economic situation.

Bangladesh War, 1971

The conflict in 1971 originated from an internal crisis in Pakistan.

1. Political Crisis: In Pakistan's first general election in 1970, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's party won in West Pakistan, while the Awami League, led by Sheikh Mujib-ur Rahman, won in East Pakistan. The rulers in West Pakistan were unwilling to accept the verdict or the Awami League's demand for a federation.
2. Reign of Terror: In early 1971, the Pakistani army arrested Sheikh Mujib and unleashed terror on the people of East Pakistan, who began a struggle to liberate 'Bangladesh'.
3. Refugee Crisis: India had to shelter about 80 lakh refugees who fled from East Pakistan. India provided moral and material support to the freedom struggle.
4. International Alignments: Pakistan received support from the US and China. To counter this US-Pakistan-China axis, India signed a 20-year Treaty of Peace and Friendship with the Soviet Union in August 1971.
5. The War: A full-scale war broke out in December 1971. The Indian army, supported by the local population in East Pakistan, made rapid progress. Within ten days, they surrounded Dhaka, leading to the surrender of about 90,000 Pakistani soldiers.
6. Outcome: With the creation of Bangladesh as a free country, India declared a unilateral ceasefire. The Shimla Agreement, signed by Indira Gandhi and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto on 3 July 1972, formalised the return of peace.

The decisive victory in the 1971 war led to national jubilation and greatly increased Prime Minister Indira Gandhi's popularity.

Kargil Confrontation

In early 1999, forces claiming to be Mujahideens occupied several points on the Indian side of the Line of Control (LoC) in the Kargil region. Suspecting the involvement of the Pakistan Army, Indian forces responded, leading to the Kargil conflict in May-June 1999. By 26 July 1999, India had recovered control of the lost points. The conflict drew worldwide attention as both India and Pakistan had become nuclear powers just a year earlier.

India's Nuclear Policy

A key development was India's first nuclear explosion in May 1974. The nuclear programme was initiated in the late 1940s under the guidance of Homi J. Bhabha. Nehru believed in using atomic energy for peaceful purposes and advocated for nuclear disarmament.

However, the global nuclear arsenal continued to grow. When Communist China conducted nuclear tests in October 1964, the five nuclear powers (US, USSR, UK, France, and China) tried to impose the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968 on other countries.

• India considered the NPT discriminatory and refused to sign it.
• When India conducted its first test in 1974, it was termed a "peaceful explosion," with India arguing that it was committed to using nuclear power only for peaceful purposes.
• This test occurred during a difficult period of domestic politics, marked by high inflation due to the 1973 Oil Shock and widespread agitations.

India's Nuclear Programme: Later Developments

• India continued to oppose international treaties like the NPT and the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT), viewing them as legitimising the monopoly of the five nuclear powers.
• In May 1998, India conducted a series of nuclear tests, demonstrating its capacity for military use of nuclear energy. Pakistan followed with its own tests.
• India's nuclear doctrine is based on "credible minimum nuclear deterrence" and professes a "no first use" policy, meaning it will not be the first to use nuclear weapons in a conflict.

Shifting Alliances in World Politics

Over time, India's foreign policy has adapted to changes in the global landscape.

• The Janata Party government, which came to power in 1977, announced it would follow "genuine non-alignment" to correct the perceived pro-Soviet tilt in foreign policy.
• After the end of the Cold War in the early 1990s, Russia's global pre-eminence declined. As a result, India's foreign policy has shifted towards a more pro-US strategy.
• Contemporary international relations are more influenced by economic interests than military ones, which has also impacted India's foreign policy choices.

Despite ongoing issues like Kashmir, there have been many efforts to restore normal relations with Pakistan, including cultural exchanges and the operation of bus and train services.