Region and the Nation

The 1980s was a period of rising regional aspirations across India. Many of these movements demanded more autonomy, sometimes even outside the framework of the Indian Union. These struggles were often long, sometimes involving armed conflict, and usually ended in negotiated settlements or accords between the central government and the movement's leaders.

Indian approach

India's approach to diversity has always been unique and is a core principle of its nation-building process. Unlike many European nations that viewed cultural diversity as a threat, India embraced it.

Balancing Unity and Diversity: The Indian nation was built on the idea that different regions and linguistic groups should be able to keep their own culture. The goal was to create a united social life without erasing the distinctiveness of its many cultures.
Democratic Expression: India adopted a democratic approach, which allows for the political expression of regional aspirations. These are not seen as "anti-national." Democratic politics allows parties and groups to address regional identities and problems.
Potential for Tension: This approach can sometimes lead to tension. A strong focus on national unity might overshadow regional needs, while a focus only on the region can ignore the larger needs of the nation.

Note

India's democratic framework allows regional issues to be heard and addressed, which strengthens both the regions and the nation as a whole. Nation-building is seen as an ongoing process, not a one-time event.

Areas of tension

Immediately after Independence, India faced many challenges related to regionalism.

Early Challenges: The issue of Jammu and Kashmir came up right away. In the North-East, states like Nagaland and Mizoram saw strong movements demanding separation from India. In the south, the Dravid movement briefly considered the idea of a separate country.
Linguistic States: Mass agitations for the formation of states based on language led to the creation of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Gujarat.
Official Language Protests: There were protests in southern India, especially Tamil Nadu, against making Hindi the official national language. In the north, there were strong agitations demanding Hindi be made the official language immediately.
Creation of Punjab: From the late 1950s, people speaking Punjabi agitated for their own state. This led to the creation of Punjab and Haryana in 1966.
Later States: Later, states like Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand, and Jharkhand were also created based on regional aspirations.

While redrawing internal boundaries helped meet the challenge of diversity, it did not solve all problems. Complex issues in Kashmir and Nagaland remained, and new challenges emerged in Punjab, Assam, and Mizoram.

Jammu and Kashmir

The state of Jammu and Kashmir experienced violence, cross-border terrorism, and political instability for decades, despite its special status under Article 370 of the Constitution. This led to the loss of many lives and the large-scale displacement of Kashmiri Pandits from the Kashmir valley.

The state comprised three distinct social and political regions:

Jammu: A mix of foothills and plains, predominantly inhabited by Hindus, with a presence of Muslims, Sikhs, and others.
Kashmir: The Kashmir valley, inhabited mostly by Kashmiri Muslims.
Ladakh: A mountainous region with a small population, almost equally divided between Buddhists and Muslims.

Roots of the Problem

Before 1947, Jammu and Kashmir was a Princely State.

Maharaja's Stand: Its ruler, Maharaja Hari Singh, wanted to remain independent and not merge with either India or Pakistan.
Pakistan's Claim: Pakistani leaders believed Kashmir "belonged" to them because of its Muslim-majority population.
Kashmiriyat: The people of the state, however, saw themselves as Kashmiris first. This unique regional identity is known as Kashmiriyat.
Sheikh Abdullah's Role: The popular movement, led by Sheikh Abdullah of the National Conference, was against the Maharaja but also against joining Pakistan. The National Conference was a secular organization with close ties to the Indian National Congress.

In October 1947, Pakistan sent tribal infiltrators to capture Kashmir. This forced the Maharaja to ask for India's military help. India agreed, but only after the Maharaja signed an ‘Instrument of Accession’. While Indian forces pushed back the infiltrators, Pakistan retained control of a part of the state. The issue was taken to the United Nations. Meanwhile, Sheikh Abdullah became the Prime Minister of the state in March 1948, and India granted J&K provisional autonomy under Article 370.

External and internal disputes

The politics of J&K remained controversial for both external and internal reasons.

External Dispute: Pakistan has always claimed the Kashmir valley. The part of the state under Pakistani control is referred to in India as Pakistan occupied Jammu and Kashmir (POJK).
Internal Dispute: There was a dispute about the status of Kashmir within the Indian union.
- One view, held by some outside J&K, was that Article 370 prevented the full integration of the state with India and should be revoked.
- Another view, held mostly by Kashmiris, was that the autonomy granted by Article 370 was not enough. Their grievances included:
  1. The promise of a plebiscite (a direct vote by the people) was never fulfilled.
  2. The special status guaranteed by Article 370 had been eroded over time, leading to demands for the restoration of autonomy.
  3. Democracy was not institutionalised in J&K in the same way as in the rest of India.

Politics since 1948

After becoming Prime Minister of the state, Sheikh Abdullah initiated land reforms, but his differences with the central government over Kashmir's status grew. He was dismissed in 1953 and detained for many years.

Congress Influence (1953-1974): The leaders who succeeded him ruled with the support of the Centre, and there were allegations of rigging in elections. The Congress party exercised significant influence, and the National Conference (without Sheikh Abdullah) even merged with it for a time.
1974 Accord: In 1974, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi reached an agreement with Sheikh Abdullah, and he became the Chief Minister of the state. His revived National Conference won the 1977 assembly elections.
Post-Sheikh Abdullah Era: After Sheikh Abdullah's death in 1982, his son, Farooq Abdullah, became Chief Minister. However, he was soon dismissed by the Governor, leading to resentment and a feeling that the Centre was intervening in the state's politics. This feeling was strengthened when the National Conference formed an alliance with the Congress in 1986.

Insurgency and After

The 1987 Assembly election was a turning point. The National Conference-Congress alliance won a massive victory, but it was widely believed that the election was rigged.

Rise of Militancy: This, combined with resentment against the administration, led to a political crisis. By 1989, a militant movement for a separate Kashmiri nation had taken hold, with support from Pakistan.
President's Rule: For many years starting in 1990, the state was under President's rule and experienced extraordinary violence.
Return to Elections: Assembly elections were held again in 1996, and the National Conference, led by Farooq Abdullah, came to power demanding regional autonomy. In the 2002 elections, a coalition government of the People's Democratic Party (PDP) and Congress replaced them.

2002 and Beyond

The period after 2002 saw a series of coalition governments and continued political instability.

Coalition Politics: The PDP-Congress coalition was followed by a National Conference-Congress coalition led by Omar Abdullah in 2009.
PDP-BJP Government: In 2014, a coalition government of the PDP, led by Mufti Mohammed Sayeed, and the BJP came to power. After his death, his daughter Mahbooba Mufti became the state's first woman Chief Minister in April 2016.
Abrogation of Article 370: In June 2018, the BJP withdrew its support, and President's rule was imposed. On 5 August 2019, the central government abolished Article 370 through the Jammu & Kashmir Reorganisation Act 2019. The state was divided into two Union Territories: Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh.

Dravidian movement

The Dravidian movement in the south, particularly in Tamil Nadu, is one of India's most effective regional movements. It used democratic means like public debates and elections, rather than armed struggle, to achieve its goals.

Origins: The movement began with the formation of Dravidar Kazhagam (DK) under the leadership of social reformer E.V. Ramasami 'Periyar'. It strongly opposed the dominance of Brahmins and affirmed regional pride against the political, economic, and cultural domination of the North.
Rise of the DMK: The political legacy of the movement was transferred to the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK). The DMK launched a three-pronged agitation in 1953-54:
1. Demanding the restoration of the original name of a railway station, protesting North Indian economic symbols.
2. Agitating for giving Tamil cultural history greater importance in school curricula.
3. Protesting against a craft education scheme and the imposition of Hindi as the official language.
Political Success: The success of the anti-Hindi agitation in 1965 boosted the DMK's popularity, and it came to power in the 1967 Assembly elections.
Dominance of Dravidian Parties: Since then, Dravidian parties have dominated Tamil Nadu politics. After a split, two major parties emerged: the DMK and the All India Anna DMK (AIADMK). These parties have kept the issue of regional pride alive and have also been part of ruling coalitions at the Centre.

Example

The Dravidian movement, initially seen as a threat to Indian nationalism, is now considered a good example of how regionalism and nationalism can be compatible. It fought for regional identity and power within the democratic framework of India.

Punjab

The 1980s saw major developments in Punjab. The state was created in 1966 as a Punjabi-speaking state after a long movement led by the Akali Dal, the political wing of the Sikhs.

Political context

After its formation, the Akali Dal found its political position to be unstable.

Its coalition governments were dismissed by the Centre.
It did not have strong support among Hindus.
The Sikh community itself was divided by caste and class, with the Congress having more support among Dalits (both Hindu and Sikh).

In this context, a section of Akalis began demanding more political autonomy. This was expressed in the Anandpur Sahib Resolution passed in 1973. The resolution asserted regional autonomy and wanted to redefine Centre-state relations. It also spoke of the aspirations of the Sikh qaum (community or nation) and declared its goal as attaining the bolbala (dominance) of the Sikhs. While it was a plea for strengthening federalism, its language made it controversial.

Cycle of violence

The demand for autonomy soon took a dark turn.

Rise of Extremism: The leadership of the movement passed from moderate Akalis to extremist elements, leading to an armed insurgency. Militants made their headquarters inside the Golden Temple in Amritsar.
Operation Blue Star: In June 1984, the Government of India carried out ‘Operation Blue Star’ to flush out the militants. The operation was successful, but the damage to the historic temple deeply hurt the sentiments of Sikhs worldwide and fueled more extremism.
Assassination and Aftermath: On 31 October 1984, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was assassinated by her Sikh bodyguards as revenge for the operation. This was followed by horrific violence against the Sikh community in Delhi and other parts of northern India, where more than two thousand Sikhs were killed.

Road to peace

After becoming Prime Minister in 1984, Rajiv Gandhi initiated a dialogue with moderate Akali leaders.

Punjab Accord: In July 1985, he signed an agreement with Harchand Singh Longowal, the President of the Akali Dal. This was known as the Rajiv Gandhi - Longowal Accord or the Punjab Accord.
Provisions of the Accord: It agreed that Chandigarh would be transferred to Punjab, a commission would resolve the border dispute with Haryana, and a tribunal would decide the sharing of Ravi-Beas river water.
Return to Normalcy: Peace did not return immediately. The cycle of militancy and counter-insurgency violence continued for nearly a decade. However, by the middle of the 1990s, peace was restored. The Akali Dal (Badal) and BJP alliance won the 1997 elections, marking a return to normal politics focused on economic development and social change.

The North-East

The North-East region of India, consisting of eight states (often called the "seven sisters" plus Sikkim), faced a turning point in the 1980s. The region is connected to the rest of India by a narrow 22-kilometer corridor and shares borders with China, Myanmar, and Bangladesh.

The Partition of India in 1947 made the region land-locked, affecting its economy and leading to neglect. Its isolation, complex social character, and influx of migrants have led to a unique set of political demands, dominated by three issues:

Demands for autonomy
Movements for secession
Opposition to 'outsiders'

Demands for autonomy

At Independence, most of the region was part of Assam. Demands for political autonomy arose when non-Assamese communities felt that the Assam government was imposing the Assamese language on them.

Tribal leaders demanded a separate state carved out of Assam.
This led to the creation of Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Arunachal Pradesh out of Assam. Nagaland had already been created in 1963, and Manipur and Tripura were upgraded to full states.
Even within Assam, communities like the Bodos, Karbis, and Dimasas have demanded separate states. To satisfy these demands without creating more states, they have been granted autonomy through District Councils and Autonomous Councils.

Secessionist movements

Dealing with demands for a separate country was much more difficult.

Mizoram: After Independence, the Mizo Hills were an autonomous district within Assam. A movement for secession gained support after the Assam government's poor response to a great famine in 1959. The Mizo National Front (MNF), led by Laldenga, started an armed campaign for independence in 1966. After two decades of insurgency, a peace agreement was signed in 1986 between Rajiv Gandhi and Laldenga. Mizoram was granted full statehood, and the MNF gave up its secessionist struggle.
Nagaland: The story of Nagaland is similar but has not had a happy ending yet. Led by Angami Zapu Phizo, a section of Nagas declared independence way back in 1951. The Naga National Council launched an armed struggle. While some agreements have been signed, the problem still awaits a final resolution.

Movements against outsiders

Large-scale migration into the North-East created a problem of 'locals' versus 'outsiders'. Migrants were seen as encroachers on scarce resources and competitors for jobs and political power.

The Assam Movement (1979-1985): This was the best example of a movement against outsiders. The All Assam Students’ Union (AASU) led a movement against what they saw as huge numbers of illegal Bengali Muslim settlers from Bangladesh.
Demands of the Movement: The movement demanded that all outsiders who entered after 1951 be sent back. It was fueled by cultural pride and concerns about economic issues like poverty and unemployment, despite Assam's natural resources (oil, tea, coal).
The Assam Accord: After six years of agitation, the Rajiv Gandhi government signed an accord with AASU leaders in 1985. It was agreed that foreigners who migrated into Assam during and after the Bangladesh war would be identified and deported.
Political Outcome: The leaders of the movement formed a regional political party, the Asom Gana Parishad (AGP), which came to power in 1985. However, the problem of immigration remains a major issue in Assam and other North-Eastern states.

Sikkim's merger

At the time of Independence, Sikkim was a 'protectorate' of India, meaning India handled its defense and foreign relations, but its internal administration was with its monarch, the Chogyal.

The Chogyal was seen as favoring the minority Lepcha-Bhutia community over the Nepali majority, who desired democracy.
The Sikkim Congress won the first democratic elections in 1974 on a platform of greater integration with India.
In April 1975, the Sikkim assembly passed a resolution asking for full integration. A referendum confirmed popular support for this move.
The Indian Parliament accepted the request, and Sikkim became the 22nd state of the Indian union.

Goa's liberation

While the British left in 1947, Portugal refused to leave its territories of Goa, Diu, and Daman.

After peaceful attempts failed, the Indian government sent the army in December 1961 in "Operation Vijaya", liberating the territories.
A political debate then began. One group wanted Goa, a Marathi-speaking area, to merge with Maharashtra. Another wanted to retain a separate Goan identity and the Konkani language.
In January 1967, the Central Government held a special 'opinion poll'. The majority voted to remain separate from Maharashtra.
Goa continued as a Union Territory until it became a full state of the Indian Union in 1987.

Accommodation and National Integration

The history of regional aspirations in India offers several important lessons about how a diverse democracy can function and thrive.