Variations in Psychological AttributesClass 12 Psychology NCERT Solutions
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Q1Review Questions
How do psychologists characterise and define intelligence?
Solution
Psychologists characterize intelligence as a key psychological attribute that helps in understanding how individuals differ from one another and adapt to their environment. The definitions have evolved over time and vary across different theories.
Some key definitions from psychologists mentioned in the chapter include:
- Alfred Binet: He was one of the first psychologists to formalize the concept. He defined intelligence as the ability to judge well, understand well, and reason well.
- Wechsler: He defined intelligence in terms of its functionality, describing it as the global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with their environment.
- Gardner and Sternberg: They suggested that an intelligent individual not only adapts to the environment but also actively modifies or shapes it.
Overall, psychologists view intelligence not just as a single trait but as a complex construct involving abilities like understanding complex ideas, adapting to the environment, learning from experience, and engaging in various forms of reasoning to overcome obstacles.
Q2Review Questions
To what extent is our intelligence the result of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture)? Discuss.
Solution
Psychologists have reached a general consensus that intelligence is the product of a complex interaction between heredity (nature) and environment (nurture). Neither factor is solely responsible; they work together to shape an individual's intellectual abilities.
Evidence for Heredity (Nature):
- Twin Studies: Studies show a strong correlation in intelligence scores between identical twins. The correlation is very high (almost 0.90) for identical twins reared together and remains significant (0.72) even when they are reared in different environments. This suggests a strong genetic component.
- Adoption Studies: Studies of adopted children show that their intelligence is more similar to their biological parents than their adoptive parents, further supporting the influence of heredity.
Evidence for Environment (Nurture):
- Adoption Studies: As children from disadvantaged homes grow older in families with higher socioeconomic status, their intelligence scores tend to increase and move closer to that of their adoptive parents.
- Environmental Factors: Evidence shows that environmental deprivation (poor nutrition, lack of quality schooling) can lower intelligence, while an enriched environment (good family background, quality schooling) can increase it.
Conclusion:
Heredity is best viewed as setting a range within which an individual's intellectual development can occur. The environment, with its support and opportunities, then determines where within that range the individual's development is actually shaped. Therefore, both nature and nurture are indispensable for the development of intelligence.
Q3Review Questions
Explain briefly the multiple intelligences identified by Gardner.
Solution
Howard Gardner proposed the theory of multiple intelligences, suggesting that intelligence is not a single entity but consists of eight distinct and independent types of intelligences. A person can be high in one type of intelligence without necessarily being high in others. The eight intelligences are:
- Linguistic: The ability to use language fluently and flexibly to express oneself and understand others. Poets and writers exhibit this intelligence.
- Logical-Mathematical: The ability to think logically, critically, reason abstractly, and solve mathematical problems. Scientists and Nobel Prize winners are strong in this area.
- Spatial: The ability to form, use, and transform mental images and visual patterns. Pilots, surgeons, sculptors, and architects have highly developed spatial intelligence.
- Musical: The capacity to produce, create, and manipulate musical patterns, rhythms, and sounds. This is prominent in musicians and composers.
- Bodily-Kinaesthetic: The ability to use one's whole body or parts of it flexibly and creatively for problem-solving or constructing products. Athletes, dancers, and surgeons are examples.
- Interpersonal: The ability to understand the motives, feelings, and behaviours of other people and build comfortable relationships. Psychologists, politicians, and social workers possess this intelligence.
- Intrapersonal: The knowledge of one's own internal strengths, limitations, feelings, and desires. This involves having a deep self-awareness. Philosophers and spiritual leaders are high in this intelligence.
- Naturalistic: The ability to identify and discriminate among different features of the natural world, such as flora and fauna. Hunters, farmers, botanists, and zoologists show this intelligence.
Q4Review Questions
How does the triarchic theory help us to understand intelligence?
Solution
Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory helps us understand intelligence as a broader concept than what is measured by traditional IQ tests. It represents an information-processing approach, focusing on how people use their intelligence. According to Sternberg, intelligence is "the ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to accomplish one’s goals and those of one’s society and culture."
The theory proposes three basic types of intelligence that work together:
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Componential Intelligence (Analytical): This is the ability to analyze information to solve problems. It is the kind of intelligence that is valued in academic settings and measured by traditional intelligence tests. It involves three components:
- Knowledge Acquisition: For learning and acquiring information.
- Meta Component: For planning and decision-making.
- Performance Component: For actually doing things.
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Experiential Intelligence (Creative): This involves using past experiences creatively to solve novel problems. People high in this intelligence can integrate different experiences in original ways to make new discoveries and inventions. They are quick to identify crucial information in new situations.
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Contextual Intelligence (Practical): This is the ability to deal with environmental demands on a daily basis, often called 'street smartness' or 'business sense'. People high in this intelligence can adapt to their environment, select a better one, or modify the existing environment to fit their needs, leading to success in life.
This theory provides a comprehensive view by explaining that a truly intelligent person balances all three aspects—analytical thinking, creative problem-solving, and practical application.
Q5Review Questions
“Any intellectual activity involves the independent functioning of three neurological systems”. Explain with reference to PASS model.
Solution
The statement in the question contains a slight inaccuracy based on the chapter text. The PASS model, developed by J.P. Das, Jack Naglieri, and Kirby, states that intellectual activity involves the interdependent functioning of three neurological systems, not independent. These systems, called the functional units of the brain, work together to facilitate intellectual activity.
The three systems are:
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Arousal/Attention: This is the foundational process. A state of arousal is necessary to attend to stimuli and process information. An optimal level of arousal focuses our attention on relevant aspects of a task. Too little or too much arousal can interfere with attention. For example, being told about an upcoming test arouses a student to focus their attention on studying the relevant chapters.
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Simultaneous and Successive Processing (Coding): This system is responsible for processing information. Information can be integrated into our knowledge system in two ways:
- Simultaneous Processing: This involves perceiving relations among various concepts and integrating them into a meaningful whole or pattern. For example, solving Raven's Progressive Matrices test requires understanding the relationship between abstract figures to complete a pattern.
- Successive Processing: This involves remembering information serially, where the recall of one piece of information triggers the recall of the next. Learning digits, alphabets, or multiplication tables are examples.
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Planning: This is a higher-order function that is activated after information has been attended to and processed. It allows us to think of possible courses of action, implement them to reach a goal, and evaluate their effectiveness. If a plan fails, it can be modified. For instance, a student plans a study schedule to prepare for a test and might change their strategy if they encounter difficulties.
Q6Review Questions
Are there cultural differences in the conceptualisation of intelligence?
Solution
Yes, there are significant cultural differences in the conceptualisation of intelligence. The cultural environment provides the context in which intelligence develops and is defined. What is considered intelligent behaviour in one culture may not be valued in another.
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Western Cultures: Technologically advanced societies, primarily in the West, promote a type of behaviour called technological intelligence. This form of intelligence emphasizes skills like generalization, abstraction, speed, analysis, performance, and individual achievement orientation. Intelligence tests developed in these cultures are designed to measure these specific skills.
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Non-Western Cultures (Asian and African): In many non-western societies, intelligence is viewed more holistically. The qualities and skills regarded as intelligent are different. These cultures often value skills related to social competence and relating to others. Self-reflection and collectivistic orientation are valued over personal achievement and individualistic orientation.
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Indian Tradition: Intelligence in the Indian tradition is termed integral intelligence. It gives emphasis on connectivity with the social and world environment. The Sanskrit word 'buddhi' is a broader concept than the western idea of intelligence. It includes cognitive competencies (knowledge, understanding) as well as non-cognitive processes like mental effort, determined action, feelings, and opinions. Facets of intelligence in the Indian tradition include:
- Cognitive capacity: Problem-solving, effective communication.
- Social competence: Respect for elders, concern for others.
- Emotional competence: Self-regulation, politeness.
- Entrepreneurial competence: Commitment, persistence, hard work.
Thus, intelligence is not a universal attribute with a single meaning; it is a product of culture.
Q7Review Questions
What is IQ? How do psychologists classify people on the basis of their IQ scores?
Solution
IQ, or Intelligence Quotient, is a score derived from standardized tests designed to assess human intelligence. The concept was devised in 1912 by William Stern, a German psychologist.
Definition of IQ:
IQ is calculated using the formula:
IQ = (Mental Age / Chronological Age) × 100
- Mental Age (MA): A measure of a person's intellectual development relative to people of their age group. It is determined by their performance on an intelligence test.
- Chronological Age (CA): A person's biological age from birth.
The number 100 is used as a multiplier to avoid decimal points. An IQ of 100 indicates that a person's mental age is equal to their chronological age, which is considered average.
Classification based on IQ Scores:
IQ scores in the population tend to follow a normal distribution, or a bell-shaped curve, with the mean score being 100. Psychologists classify people into different descriptive categories based on their IQ range. According to the table provided in the chapter, the classification is as follows:
- Above 130: Very superior (Intellectually Gifted)
- 120-130: Superior
- 110-119: High average
- 90-109: Average
- 80-89: Low average
- 70-79: Borderline
- Below 70: Intellectually disabled
This classification helps identify individuals at the extremes of intellectual functioning, such as those who are intellectually gifted or those with intellectual disabilities, who may require special attention or educational programs.
Q8Review Questions
How can you differentiate between verbal and performance tests of intelligence?
Solution
Verbal and performance tests are two categories of intelligence tests classified based on the nature of the items used. They differ primarily in the mode of response required and the skills they assess.
Verbal Tests:
- Nature of Items: These tests use words and language-based questions.
- Required Response: They require subjects to give verbal responses, either orally or in a written form.
- Dependency: They depend heavily on a person's language skills and literacy. Therefore, they can only be administered to literate people.
- Example Skills: They assess abilities like verbal comprehension, reasoning, and memory for words.
Performance Tests:
- Nature of Items: These tests use non-language-based materials, such as pictures, blocks, or puzzles.
- Required Response: They require subjects to manipulate objects or other materials to perform a task. Written language is not necessary for answering.
- Dependency: They are less dependent on literacy and language skills.
- Example Skills: They assess abilities like spatial reasoning, problem-solving with concrete objects, and perceptual-motor coordination. An example is Kohs' Block Design Test, where a person arranges blocks to match a given design.
Key Difference and Advantage:
The major advantage of performance tests is that they can be administered to people from different cultures or linguistic backgrounds, as well as to those who are illiterate, thus reducing the cultural bias often associated with verbal tests.
Q9Review Questions
All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity. How do individuals vary in their intellectual ability? Explain.
Solution
Individuals vary significantly in their intellectual abilities. This variation is represented by the distribution of IQ scores in the population, which approximates a bell-shaped or normal curve. While most people have average intelligence, some are exceptionally bright, and others are below average. The variations are most apparent at the extremes of this distribution.
1. Intellectual Disability:
- Definition: This refers to significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning (IQ below 70) that exists along with deficits in adaptive behaviour and is manifested during the developmental period (0-18 years).
- Adaptive Behaviour: This is the capacity to be independent and deal effectively with one's environment.
- Levels of Disability: There are different levels of severity:
- Mild (IQ 55-70): Can function quite independently, hold jobs, and have families, though their development is slower.
- Moderate (IQ 35-55): Can be trained in self-care and simple communication skills but need moderate supervision.
- Severe (IQ 20-40) and Profound (IQ below 20-25): Incapable of managing life and need constant care throughout their lives.
2. Intellectual Giftedness:
- Definition: This refers to exceptional general ability shown in superior performance in a wide variety of areas, typically associated with an IQ above 130.
- Characteristics: Gifted individuals often show:
- Advanced logical thinking and problem-solving.
- High speed in processing information.
- High level of intrinsic motivation and self-esteem.
- Independent and non-conformist thinking.
- Early appearance of language skills and a larger attention span.
- Talent vs. Giftedness: Giftedness is a broad, general ability, whereas talent refers to remarkable ability in a specific field (e.g., music, art).
These two groups, representing the extremes of intelligence, deviate considerably from the normal population and often require special educational programs to reach their full potential.
Q10Review Questions
Which of the two, IQ or EQ, do you think would be more related to success in life and why?
Solution
While both IQ (Intelligence Quotient) and EQ (Emotional Quotient) are important, EQ is arguably more related to overall success in life. The chapter suggests that a good IQ and scholastic record alone are not enough to be successful.
Why EQ is More Related to Success:
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Manages Interpersonal Relationships: Success in life, both personal and professional, heavily depends on our ability to interact effectively with others. EQ is the ability to understand and manage one's own and others' emotions. This helps in building strong relationships, resolving conflicts, and working collaboratively in teams, which are crucial for success in the workplace and family life.
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Handles Life's Stresses and Challenges: Life is filled with challenges, setbacks, and stress. People with high EQ can regulate their emotions, control impulses, and stay motivated in the face of difficulties. This resilience is often more critical for long-term success than pure cognitive ability.
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Guides Thinking and Actions: Emotional intelligence, as defined by Salovey and Mayer, is the ability "to use the information [from emotions] to guide one's thinking and actions." This means making decisions that are not just logically sound (IQ) but also emotionally intelligent, leading to better outcomes.
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Limitations of IQ: The chapter points out that many people who are academically talented (high IQ) are unsuccessful in their lives, experiencing problems in family, workplace, and interpersonal relationships. This suggests that their difficulty may stem from a lack of emotional intelligence.
In conclusion, while IQ is important for academic achievement and for roles requiring analytical skills, EQ provides the foundation for self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management. These are the skills that enable individuals to navigate the complexities of life, build a supportive network, and achieve lasting success and well-being.
Q11Review Questions
How is 'aptitude' different from 'interest' and 'intelligence'? How is aptitude measured?
Solution
Aptitude, interest, and intelligence are distinct psychological attributes, although they can be interrelated.
Differences between Aptitude, Interest, and Intelligence:
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Intelligence: This is a broad, global capacity. It refers to a person's general mental ability to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges. It assesses a general cognitive competence.
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Aptitude: This is a more specific ability. It refers to an individual's underlying potential for acquiring a specific skill or knowledge in a particular field of activity. It indicates a person's capacity to profit from training in that specific area. For example, a person may have a high mechanical aptitude or language aptitude.
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Interest: This is a preference for a particular activity. It is an individual's preference for engaging in one or more specific activities relative to others. For example, someone might have an interest in engineering but not the aptitude for it.
Relationship: While intelligence is a general ability, aptitude is a specific potential. A person with a certain level of intelligence may have different aptitudes. For success in a particular field, both aptitude (the potential to do it) and interest (the desire to do it) are necessary. A person with high aptitude for a job but no interest in it is unlikely to be satisfied or successful, and vice-versa.
Measurement of Aptitude:
Aptitude is measured with the help of specialized aptitude tests. These tests are used to predict an individual's future performance in a specific area if given proper training and environment. Aptitude tests are available in two forms:
- Independent (Specialised) Aptitude Tests: These measure aptitude in a single, specific area. Examples include Clerical Aptitude, Mechanical Aptitude, and Numerical Aptitude tests.
- Multiple (Generalised) Aptitude Tests: These exist as test batteries that measure aptitude in several different but related areas. Well-known examples include the Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT), the General Aptitude Tests Battery (GATB), and the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB).
Q12Review Questions
How is creativity related to intelligence?
Solution
The relationship between creativity and intelligence is complex and not a simple one-to-one correlation. While they are related, they are not the same thing.
Key aspects of their relationship are:
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Intelligence Does Not Ensure Creativity: A person can be highly intelligent without being creative. Research by Terman in the 1920s found that individuals with very high IQs were not necessarily creative. A highly intelligent person might be excellent at learning, reproducing information accurately, and solving problems with known solutions (convergent thinking), but may not generate novel or original ideas (divergent thinking), which is the hallmark of creativity.
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A Minimum Level of Intelligence is Necessary: All creative acts require some minimum level of intelligence. To be creative, a person needs the ability to acquire knowledge, comprehend complex information, retain it, and retrieve it when needed. For example, a creative scientist must be able to reason logically, and a creative writer must have a facility with language. Therefore, a certain threshold of intelligence is required for creativity to emerge.
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Positive but Limited Correlation: Researchers have found that the relationship between creativity and intelligence is positive, but only up to a certain point. Beyond a certain level of IQ, intelligence does not correlate well with creativity. This means that among people with average or slightly above-average intelligence, higher IQ might be associated with higher creativity. However, among highly intelligent individuals, a further increase in IQ does not necessarily lead to a corresponding increase in creativity.
In conclusion, intelligence is a necessary but not sufficient condition for creativity. A person can be intelligent but not creative. Conversely, creative ideas can come from people who do not have exceptionally high IQs. Both high and low levels of creativity can be found in highly intelligent people as well as in people of average intelligence.