Change and Development in Industrial SocietyClass 12 Social Change and Development in India NCERT Solutions
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Q1Questions
Choose any occupation you see around you - and describe it along the following lines: a) socia I composition of the work force - caste, gender, age, region; b) labour process- how the work takesplace, c) wagesand other benefits, d) working conditions - safety, rest times, working hours, etc.
Solution
An occupation that can be described based on the chapter is that of a construction worker, which is part of the unorganised sector.
a) Social Composition of the Workforce:
- Region: The workforce is primarily composed of migrant labourers from rural areas. Contractors often recruit them from villages.
- Caste/Community: The chapter notes that many displaced farmers, especially Adivasis, are forced to become casual labourers. Thus, the workforce often includes people from marginalised sections of society like Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and other backward classes.
- Gender and Age: Entire families often migrate for work, so the workforce includes men, women, and sometimes children who help their parents.
b) Labour Process:
- The recruitment process is dominated by the contractor system. A contractor visits villages and offers work, often providing a loan which is treated as an advance wage.
- The worker is then transported to the work site and must work without wages until the loan is repaid. This creates a cycle of debt.
- While the workers are in debt, the chapter notes they are more 'free' than traditional agricultural labourers as they are not bound by other social obligations and can, in theory, break the contract and find another employer.
c) Wages and Other Benefits:
- Construction workers are casual wage labourers. Their wages are often low and insecure, dictated by the contractor.
- As part of the unorganised sector, they do not receive benefits common in the organised sector, such as proper salaries, pensions, paid leave, or health benefits.
- Their employment is not regular or salaried, making their income unstable.
d) Working Conditions:
- Working conditions are generally poor and unregulated, left to the 'whims and fancies of the employer or contractor'.
- There is little emphasis on safety, and workers lack the power of unions to collectively fight for safe working conditions.
- Working hours are likely long with inadequate rest times. The nature of their work exposes them to physical risks and harsh weather conditions.
Q1Questions
Choose any occupation you see around you - and describe it along the following lines: a) socia I composition of the work force - caste, gender, age, region; b) labour process- how the work takesplace, c) wagesand other benefits, d) working conditions - safety, rest times, working hours, etc.
Solution
Based on the chapter, let us examine the occupation of a home-based bidi worker.
a) Social Composition of the Workforce:
The workforce for home-based bidi rolling is composed mainly of women and children. The initial stage of plucking tendu leaves is done by villagers in forested areas.
b) Labour Process:
The process is part of a long supply chain and is highly fragmented:
- Villagers pluck tendu leaves and sell them to a contractor or the forest department.
- The government auctions the leaves to bidi factory owners.
- The factory owner provides the leaves and tobacco to a contractor.
- The contractor supplies these raw materials to home-based workers.
- The workers, mostly women, roll the bidis by dampening and cutting the leaves, filling them with tobacco, and tying them with thread.
- The contractor collects the finished bidis and sells them back to the manufacturer, who then roasts, brands, and packages them for sale through distributors and wholesalers.
c) Wages and Other Benefits:
Home-based workers are paid on a piece-rate basis, meaning their earnings depend directly on the number of bidis they produce. The text does not mention any other benefits like pensions, health insurance, or paid leave, which is characteristic of work in the unorganised/informal sector. Their income is precarious and lacks the security of a regular salary.
d) Working Conditions:
As the work is home-based, it is unregulated. There are no fixed working hours, rest times, or safety measures. Workers, including children, may work long hours to meet their production targets. They have no formal mechanism for complaint or redressal and are dependent on the contractor for raw materials and payment. This makes them highly vulnerable to exploitation.
Q1Questions
Choose any occupation you see around you - and describe it along the following lines: a) socia I composition of the work force - caste, gender, age, region; b) labour process- how the work takesplace, c) wagesand other benefits, d) working conditions - safety, rest times, working hours, etc.
Solution
Based on the chapter, let us examine the occupation of a home-based bidi worker.
a) Social Composition of the Workforce:
As per the text, home-based work like bidi making is predominantly carried out by women and children. The workers are typically located in villages, often in forested areas where the tendu leaves, a primary raw material, are sourced. While the text does not specify caste, such unorganised, low-paying work often involves people from marginalised sections of society.
b) Labour Process:
The labour process for bidi making is a multi-step chain, as described in the chapter:
- Villagers pluck tendu leaves and sell them to a contractor or the forest department.
- The government auctions these leaves to bidi factory owners.
- The owners provide the leaves and tobacco to contractors.
- The contractor distributes these raw materials to home-based workers.
- The workers, mostly women, dampen and cut the leaves, fill them with tobacco, and tie them with thread.
- The contractor collects the finished bidis and sells them back to the manufacturer, who then labels and distributes them.
c) Wages and Other Benefits:
Bidi workers are paid on a piece-rate basis, meaning their earnings depend directly on the number of bidis they roll. This is a characteristic of the unorganised sector. The text implies that there are no additional benefits like pension, health insurance, or paid leave. Their employment is insecure and lacks the protections offered in the organised sector.
d) Working Conditions:
Since the work is home-based, there are no regulated working hours, rest times, or formal safety measures. Workers likely work long hours to produce enough to earn a subsistence wage. The entire family, including children, may be involved in the work. The text notes that while the government has laws for the unorganised sector, in practice, conditions are often left to the "whims and fancies of the employer or contractor."
Q1Questions
Choose any occupation you see around you - and describe it along the following lines: a) social composition of the work force - caste, gender, age, region; b) labour process- how the work takesplace, c) wagesand other benefits, d) working conditions - safety, rest times, working hours, etc.
Solution
Based on the chapter, let us examine the occupation of a home-based bidi worker.
a) Social Composition of the Workforce:
As stated in the text, home-based work like bidi rolling is predominantly done by women and children. These workers are typically located in rural or semi-urban areas. While the text does not specify caste, such informal, low-paying work often involves individuals from marginalised sections of society.
b) Labour Process:
The process is part of a long supply chain. A contractor, who receives tendu leaves and tobacco from a factory owner, supplies these raw materials to the home-based workers. The workers, mostly women, then perform the manual tasks of dampening and cutting the leaves, filling them with tobacco, and tying the bidis with thread. The same contractor then collects the finished bidis and sells them back to the manufacturer for branding and distribution.
c) Wages and Other Benefits:
Bidi workers are paid on a piece-rate basis, meaning their earnings depend directly on the number of bidis they roll. This is characteristic of the unorganised sector. The chapter explains that workers in the unorganised sector, which constitutes over 90% of the workforce in India, do not receive benefits like proper salaries, pensions, paid leave, or health security. Their income is often precarious and low.
d) Working Conditions:
The work is carried out within the worker's own home. This means there are no formal regulations governing working hours, rest times, or safety. Workers are not protected by labour laws that apply to the organised sector. The chapter notes that conditions in the unorganised sector are often left to the 'whims and fancies of the employer or contractor,' leaving workers vulnerable and without any formal mechanism for redressal.
Q2Questions
How has liberalisation affected employment pattems in India?
Solution
According to the chapter, liberalisation policies introduced in India since the 1990s have significantly affected employment patterns in the following ways:
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Decline in Secure Government Jobs: The government has been selling its shares in public sector companies, a process known as disinvestment. This has led to job insecurity and forced retirements for many government workers who previously had secure employment. The example of 'Modern Foods' illustrates this, where 60% of workers were forced to retire after privatisation.
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Rise of Contract Labour and Outsourcing: Companies, both private and public, are increasingly reducing their number of permanent employees. Instead, they outsource their work to smaller companies or even home-based workers. This is done to reduce costs, as smaller firms often have lower wages, poor working conditions, and are harder for trade unions to organise. This has made even regular salaried employment more insecure.
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Shift from Permanent to Insecure Employment: The overall trend is a shift away from secure, permanent jobs with benefits towards casual, contract-based, and insecure work. This affects workers' ability to sustain themselves and plan for the future, as they lack job security, proper wages, and benefits like pensions.
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Growth of the Service Sector: Liberalisation has led to the growth of the service sector, including IT, banking, and hotels. This has increased employment for the urban middle class. However, the chapter notes that very few people in India have access to secure jobs.
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Increased Income Inequality: The chapter suggests that liberalisation and privatisation are often associated with rising income inequality. While some sectors and individuals have benefited, many workers face greater precarity.
In summary, while liberalisation has created new opportunities in the service sector, it has also led to a decline in secure, organised sector employment and a significant increase in insecure, contractual, and outsourced labour, affecting the overall stability and well-being of the workforce.
Q2Questions
How has liberalisation affected employment pattems in India?
Solution
Liberalisation, which began in the 1990s, has significantly affected employment patterns in India by shifting the nature of work from secure, long-term employment to more precarious forms of labour. The key effects are as follows:
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Decline in Secure Government Jobs: The government has pursued a policy of disinvestment, selling its shares in public sector companies. This has led to job losses and insecurity for government workers. The text cites the example of 'Modern Foods', where 60% of workers were forced to retire after privatisation. This marks a decline in a major avenue for secure employment that once helped overcome social boundaries.
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Rise of Outsourcing and Contract Labour: Companies, both multinational and Indian, are increasingly reducing their permanent workforce and outsourcing work to smaller companies or home-based workers. This is done to reduce costs. This has led to a rise in contract labour, where workers are not given the same status, security, or benefits as permanent employees. The chapter mentions that even government departments now practice outsourcing.
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Poor Working Conditions and Low Wages: The rise of outsourcing has created intense competition among smaller firms. To secure contracts from large companies, these smaller firms often keep wages low and neglect working conditions. It is also more difficult for trade unions to organise workers in these smaller, scattered workplaces to fight for better rights.
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Growing Income Inequality: While liberalisation has led to the growth of the service sector and the urban middle class, it has also been associated with rising income inequality. A very small portion of the Indian workforce has access to secure jobs, while the majority remains in the unorganised sector or in insecure contract-based work with limited social security.
In summary, liberalisation has promoted a shift from organised, permanent employment to unorganised and insecure contract-based work, leading to decreased job security and benefits for a large section of the workforce.
Q2Questions
How has liberalisation affected employment pattems in India?
Solution
According to the chapter, the policy of liberalisation, followed since the 1990s, has significantly affected employment patterns in India in the following ways:
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Decline in Secure Employment: Liberalisation has led to a decrease in the number of permanent, secure jobs. Companies, both private and government, are increasingly reducing their permanent workforce and opting for outsourcing and contract labour. This has made even the small formal sector more insecure.
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Rise of Outsourcing and Contract Work: Companies now outsource their work to smaller firms or even home-based workers to reduce costs. For multinational companies, this outsourcing is global, with India providing cheap labour. This system puts pressure on smaller companies to keep wages low and offer poor working conditions, making it difficult for trade unions to organise.
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Impact of Disinvestment: The government's policy of disinvestment, or selling its shares in public sector companies, has led to job losses. The chapter cites the example of 'Modern Foods', the first company to be privatised, where 60% of workers were forced to retire within five years. This has reduced the role of government employment, which was once a major avenue for secure jobs.
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Growth of the Service Sector: While India remains largely agricultural, liberalisation has spurred the growth of the service sector. Industries such as IT, banking, hotels, and other services are employing more people, leading to a growing urban middle class.
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Increased Inequality: The text suggests that liberalisation and privatisation are associated with rising income inequality. While new opportunities are created, the benefits are not evenly distributed, and the shift away from secure, formal employment has left many workers in a vulnerable position.
Q2Questions
How has liberalisation affected employment pattems in India?
Solution
According to the chapter, the policy of liberalisation, which began in the 1990s, has significantly affected employment patterns in India in the following ways:
-
Decline in Secure Government Jobs: Liberalisation has led to a policy of disinvestment, where the government sells its shares in public sector companies. This has resulted in job insecurity and losses. The chapter cites the example of 'Modern Foods', the first company to be privatised, where 60% of workers were forced to retire within the first five years.
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Rise of Outsourcing and Contract Labour: Companies are increasingly reducing their number of permanent employees and outsourcing work to smaller companies or home-based workers. This is a global trend where developing countries like India provide cheap labour. This shift makes employment more insecure, as contract workers do not receive the same benefits or job security as permanent employees. The text states, "Almost all companies, even government ones, now practice some form of outsourcing and contracting."
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Poor Working Conditions and Low Wages: Outsourcing creates intense competition among smaller firms for orders from large companies. To remain competitive, these small firms often keep wages low and provide poor working conditions. It also becomes more difficult for trade unions to organise workers in these smaller, scattered firms to fight for better rights.
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Growing Inequality: While the service sector has grown and created jobs for the urban middle class, the overall trend is towards job insecurity for the majority. The chapter states that very few Indians have access to secure jobs and that liberalisation and privatisation appear to be associated with rising income inequality. The secure employment provided by the government, which was a major avenue for social mobility, is also declining.