Chapter Notes

Social Reform Movements in the 19th and early 20th century

The social reform movements that emerged in India during the 19th century were a response to the challenges of colonial society. These movements aimed to address what were seen as "social evils," such as:

• Sati (the practice of a widow immolating herself on her husband's funeral pyre)
• Child marriage
• The ban on widow remarriage
• Caste discrimination

While social reform wasn't new to India—movements like Buddhism, Bhakti, and Sufism had long challenged social discrimination—the 19th-century efforts were different. They were marked by a modern context and a unique mix of ideas, blending modern Western liberalism with a fresh interpretation of traditional Indian literature.

The Mix of Ideas and the Modern Context

Social reformers creatively combined different philosophies to argue for change. They didn't just reject tradition; they reinterpreted it in light of modern values.

• Raja Ram Mohun Roy argued against sati by using two different approaches. He appealed to modern ideas of humanitarianism and natural rights, while also using ancient Hindu shastras (sacred texts) to show that the practice was not a core part of the religion.
• Similarly, Ranade wrote texts citing Hindu law and Vedic scriptures to prove that the remarriage of widows was lawful and had religious sanction.
• Sir Syed Ahmed Khan interpreted Islam to highlight its compatibility with modern science and free inquiry.

Sociologist Satish Saberwal identified three key aspects of the modern framework that enabled these changes in colonial India:

1. New Modes of Communication: Technology like the printing press, telegraph, railways, and steamships allowed ideas to travel faster and farther than ever before. Reformers from Bengal could exchange ideas with those in Madras and Maharashtra. Keshav Chandra Sen of Bengal visited Madras in 1864, and Pandita Ramabai travelled across the country, spreading her message.
2. New Forms of Organisation: Modern social organisations were established, such as the Brahmo Samaj in Bengal and the Arya Samaj in Punjab. The All-India Muslim Ladies Conference was founded in 1914. These groups used public meetings, newspapers, and journals to debate and promote their ideas.
3. New Nature of Ideas: The movements were fueled by new ideas of liberalism, freedom, and equality. They introduced new concepts of homemaking, marriage, and new roles for women. This also led to a new sense of pride in Indian culture and tradition, with a strong emphasis on the value of education for building a modern nation.

Debates Within Communities

These reform movements were not without opposition. They sparked intense debates within different communities.

• When the Brahmo Samaj campaigned against sati, orthodox members of the Hindu community formed an organization called the Dharma Sabha. They petitioned the British government, arguing that reformers had no right to interpret sacred texts for everyone.
• Muslim social reformers debated issues like polygamy and purdah. When Jahanara Shah Nawas proposed a resolution against polygamy at the All India Muslim Ladies Conference, it led to a major debate in the Muslim press, with some journals supporting it and others disapproving.

Different Kinds of Social Change

The cultural changes in India under colonial rule were complex. Sociologists use four key concepts to understand them: sanskritisation, modernisation, secularisation, and westernisation. These processes often overlap and co-exist.

A key feature of this period was the paradox of colonial modernity. An English-educated Indian middle class emerged, inspired by Western ideas of democracy and progress. However, feeling humiliated by colonial rule, they also began to assert a strong pride in their own traditional learning and culture. This led to a "mix and match" of the traditional and the modern.

Sanskritisation

The term sanskritisation was introduced by sociologist M.N. Srinivas.

• Definition: Sanskritisation is the process where a 'low' caste or tribe adopts the customs, rituals, beliefs, ideology, and lifestyle of a high, particularly a 'twice-born' (dwija), caste.
• Impact: Its influence can be seen in many areas, including language, literature, music, dance, and rituals. It is primarily a process within the Hindu community.
• Goal: The main goal of a group undergoing Sanskritisation is to improve its position in the local caste hierarchy. This usually happens after the group has already gained some economic or political power.

However, this process was not always easy or successful. Traditionally, dominant castes would often punish lower castes who dared to imitate their customs.

Criticisms of Sanskritisation

The concept of Sanskritisation has been criticized for several reasons:

• It creates a false picture of social mobility. It only allows for positional change (a few individuals move up) but does not lead to structural change (the overall system of inequality remains).
• It reinforces the caste hierarchy by implying that the culture of the 'upper castes' is superior and should be imitated.
• It seems to justify the unequal and exclusionary model of the caste system, including beliefs about purity and pollution.
• For women, it can be a step backward. Adopting upper-caste norms often meant practices like secluding women and replacing bride-price with dowry.
• It leads to the erosion of Dalit culture and skills, devaluing their labor and traditions.

Westernisation

M.N. Srinivas also defined westernisation as "the changes brought about in Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule." This process occurred at different levels, including technology, institutions, ideology, and values.

There were different types of westernisation:

1. Emergence of a Westernised Sub-culture: A small minority of Indians, like the 19th-century reformers, adopted Western ways of thinking and lifestyles.
2. General Spread of Western Traits: Many aspects of Western culture, such as technology, dress, food, and home furnishings (like sofas and dining tables), became common among the middle class.

It is important to understand that westernisation does not automatically mean modernisation.

Western influence was also significant in Indian art and literature. Artists like Raja Ravi Varma blended Western artistic techniques, such as the use of oil paints and perspective, with Indian themes.

While it was once thought that 'lower castes' sought to be Sanskritised and 'upper castes' sought to be Westernised, this is a generalization. In many cases, groups across the caste spectrum adopted aspects of Western culture. For example, some groups in Kerala used Western education and culture to critique the caste system, while for many in the North-East, learning English provided a path to upward mobility and a common language to communicate with other tribes.

Modernisation and Secularisation

Modernisation and secularisation are two interconnected processes that describe a particular kind of social change.

Modernisation

Initially, modernisation referred to improvements in technology and production. Over time, it came to describe the path of development taken by Western Europe and North America, suggesting that other societies should follow the same path.

In sociology, modernity is understood as a shift in attitudes and social structures:

• Universal, cosmopolitan views replace local ones.
• Science, calculation, and utility become more important than emotion or sacred beliefs.
• The individual, rather than the group (family, caste), becomes the primary unit of society.
• Social roles are based on choice and achievement, not on birth.

Secularisation

In the West, secularisation has generally meant a decline in the influence of religion. It was widely assumed that as societies modernised, they would become less religious.

However, the Indian experience has been quite different:

• Modern forms of communication and organisation did not lead to a decline in religion. Instead, they helped create new kinds of religious reform organisations.
• Many rituals in India have secular dimensions. They are occasions for socializing, displaying wealth, and reinforcing social status.
• Secularisation of Caste: This is a key concept for understanding change in India. Traditionally, the caste system was a religious framework based on ideas of purity and pollution. Today, caste often functions as a political pressure group. Caste associations and political parties now use caste identity to make demands on the state for secular goals like jobs and resources.

Conclusion

Cultural change in India is a story of complex interactions, shaped deeply by the colonial experience. This period introduced Western ideas of modernity, equality, and democracy, which inspired both social reform and the nationalist movement. However, this did not lead to a simple adoption of Western ways. Instead, it prompted a dynamic process of questioning, reinterpreting, and blending tradition with modernity. The result is a unique cultural landscape where old and new, local and global, continue to coexist and shape each other.