Chapter Notes

India's Cultural Roots

Indian culture boasts a rich history spanning several millennia. Much like an ancient tree, it has numerous roots that nourish a common trunk, from which many diverse branches emerge. These branches represent various aspects of Indian culture, such as art, literature, science, medicine, religion, governance, and martial arts. Among these, schools of thought are significant, referring to groups of thinkers or spiritual seekers who share similar ideas about human life and the world.

Some of India's cultural origins can be traced back to the ancient Indus, Harappan, or Sindhu-Sarasvatī civilisation. Over time, many schools of thought developed, profoundly shaping India's unique identity. Understanding these roots helps us better comprehend 'India, that is Bharat'.

The Vedas and Vedic Culture

What are the Vedas?

The term "Veda" originates from the Sanskrit word "vid", meaning 'knowledge', which also gives us "vidyā". The Vedas are the most ancient texts of India, and among the oldest in the world. There are four main Vedas:

• The Rig Veda (the most ancient)
• The Yajur Veda
• The Sāma Veda
• The Atharva Veda

These texts consist of thousands of hymns – prayers in the form of poems and songs. They were not originally written but were recited orally in the Sapta Sindhava region. The Rig Veda is estimated to have been composed between the 5th and 2nd millennium BCE. Remarkably, these texts were committed to memory and passed down orally for 100 to 200 generations with minimal changes, through rigorous training.

The Vedic hymns were composed by rishis (male seers or sages) and rishikas (female seers) in an early form of the Sanskrit language. These hymns were addressed poetically to various deities (gods or goddesses) like Indra, Agni, Varuṇa, Mitra, Sarasvatī, and Uṣhas. These deities, along with the seers, were believed to uphold ritam, which signifies truth and order in human life and the cosmos (the universe as an ordered system).

The early rishis and rishikas perceived these gods and goddesses as unified, not separate beings. A famous hymn states: "Truth is one, though the sages call it by many names." This reflects a worldview where 'Truth' was paramount, often equated with God. The final mantras (verses) of the Rig Veda also emphasize unity among people, encouraging them to come together, speak with common minds, and share united purposes and hearts.

Vedic Society

Early Vedic society was structured into different janas, or 'clans' – large groups of people. The Rig Veda mentions over thirty such janas, including the Bharatas, Purus, Kurus, Yadus, and Turvaśhas. Each clan was associated with a specific region in the northwest of the Indian Subcontinent.

Information regarding the governance of these janas is limited, but the Vedas provide clues through terms like rājā (a king or ruler), and sabhā and samiti, both referring to collective gatherings or assemblies. Vedic texts also mention a variety of professions, such as agriculturist, weaver, potter, builder, carpenter, healer, dancer, barber, and priest.

Vedic Schools of Thought

Vedic culture also involved the development of many rituals (yajña or 'yagya'), performed for individual or collective benefit and wellbeing. Daily rituals often involved prayers and offerings to Agni, the fire deity, and these rituals grew in complexity over time.

Later, a collection of texts called the Upaniṣhads expanded upon Vedic concepts and introduced new ideas such as rebirth (taking birth again and again) and karma (our actions and their consequences). One significant school of thought, known as Vedanta, proposes that everything – human life, nature, and the universe – is a single divine essence called brahman (distinct from the god Brahmā) or simply "tat" ('that').

The Upaniṣhads also introduced the concept of ātman, or the Self, which is the divine essence residing in every being and is ultimately one with brahman. This implies that everything in the world is interconnected and interdependent. This understanding is reflected in prayers like "sarve bhavantu sukhinah," meaning "May all creatures be happy," and wishing all to be free from disease and sorrow.

In the early 1st millennium BCE, other schools of thought evolved from the Vedas. Yoga, for instance, developed methods to achieve the realization of brahman within one's consciousness. Collectively, these schools formed the foundations of what is known as Hinduism today.

Buddhism

Other schools of thought also emerged that did not accept the authority of the Vedas, developing their own systems. Buddhism is one such school.

Around two-and-a-half millennia ago, Siddhārtha Gautama was born a prince in Lumbini (modern-day Nepal), approximately in 560 BCE. He grew up in a protected palace environment. At the age of 29, during a chariot ride, he encountered an old man, a sick man, and a dead body for the first time. He also saw an ascetic who appeared peaceful and happy. These "four sights" deeply affected him, leading him to abandon his palace life, wife, and son to search for the root cause of suffering.

Siddhārtha traveled as an ascetic, meeting other seekers. After meditating for many days under a pipal tree at Bodh Gaya (modern-day Bihar), he attained enlightenment. He realized that avidyā (ignorance) and attachment are the sources of human suffering and developed a method to overcome them. Following this, Siddhārtha became known as the "Buddha," meaning the 'enlightened' or 'awakened' one.

The Buddha taught his realizations, including the concept of ahimsa, which means 'non-hurting' or 'non-injuring', often translated as 'nonviolence'. He emphasized sincere inner discipline.

The Buddha established the Sangha, a community of bhikşhus (monks) and later bhikșhuṇīs (nuns), who dedicated themselves to practicing and spreading his teachings. His influence spread across India and Asia, remaining significant even today.

Jainism

Jainism is another important school of thought that became widespread concurrently with Buddhism, though its roots are considered much older. Prince Vardhamāna was born into a royal family in the early 6th century BCE near Vaiśhālī (modern-day Bihar). At 30, he left home in pursuit of spiritual knowledge, practicing severe ascetic discipline. After 12 years, he achieved 'infinite knowledge' or supreme wisdom, earning him the title "Mahāvīra" ('great hero'). He then began preaching his realizations.

Core Jain teachings include ahimsa, anekāntavāda, and aparigraha. These ideas are also significantly shared with Buddhism and Vedanta, forming central tenets of Indian culture.

• Anekāntavāda means 'not just one' aspect or perspective. It teaches that truth has multiple facets and cannot be fully described by any single statement.
• Aparigraha means 'non-possession'. It advises detachment from material possessions and limiting oneself to what is truly necessary for life.

Jainism also stresses the interconnectedness and interdependence of all creatures, from humans to invisible organisms, emphasizing that they mutually support each other. This deep truth has been repeatedly confirmed by scientific studies of nature, flora, and fauna.

Monks and nuns from both Buddhism and Jainism traveled extensively to spread their teachings. They established monasteries and lived ascetic lives in rock-cut caves, many traces of which have been found by archaeologists, indicating a widespread presence across the land.

The Chārvāka (or Lokāyata) school was another contemporary school of thought that believed only the material world exists and there is no life after death. While it did not gain widespread popularity and eventually disappeared, its existence demonstrates the intellectual and spiritual diversity in ancient India, where people were free to choose their belief systems.

Despite their differences, the Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain schools shared common concepts like dharma, karma, rebirth, and a shared quest to end suffering and ignorance. These shared values represent the "trunk" of the cultural tree mentioned at the beginning of the chapter.

Folk and Tribal Roots

Beyond documented textual traditions, India has rich "oral traditions" – teachings and practices passed down through everyday life without written texts, similar to the early Vedas. These include numerous folk traditions (transmitted by common people) and tribal traditions (transmitted by tribes).

What is a tribe?

Anthropologists define a tribe as a group of families or clans sharing a common descent tradition, culture, and language, living as a close-knit community under a chief, and often not holding private property. Ancient India did not have a specific word for 'tribe'; they were simply considered different janas living in particular environments like forests or mountains. The Constitution of India uses "tribes" and "tribal communities" in English, and "janjāti" in Hindi.

There has been continuous interaction and exchange between folk and tribal traditions and the leading schools of thought. Deities, concepts, legends, and rituals have been freely exchanged in both directions.

This natural interaction stems from many similar concepts across folk, tribal, and Hindu belief systems. For instance, all three regard elements of nature – mountains, rivers, trees, plants, animals, and even some stones – as sacred, believing them to possess consciousness. Tribal groups commonly worship many deities associated with these natural elements.

Despite worshipping multiple deities, many tribal groups, like Hinduism, also have a concept of a higher divinity or supreme being.

Indian sociologist André Béteille aptly summarized this interaction: "The thousands of castes and tribes on the Indian subcontinent have influenced each other in their religious beliefs and practices since the beginning of history and before. That the tribal religions have been influenced by Hinduism is widely accepted, but it is equally true that Hinduism, not only in its formative phase but throughout its evolution, has been influenced by tribal religions."

This long-standing interaction has led to mutual enrichment, affirming that folk and tribal beliefs and practices are also integral to India's cultural roots.

Key Takeaways

• The Vedas, India's earliest texts, were the source of several significant schools of thought, with Vedanta and Yoga being among the most well-known.
• Buddhism and Jainism emerged as distinct schools that did not accept the authority of the Vedas, emphasizing specific values and practices.
• Despite their differences in principles and methods, these schools shared important core concepts such as dharma, karma, rebirth, and a common goal of ending suffering and ignorance.
• Tribal belief systems and art have continuously interacted with Hinduism for millennia, characterized by a free exchange of ideas, deities, and practices. Tribal beliefs often hold the land and its natural features as sacred and frequently include a concept of a higher divinity.