Chapter Notes

The Beginnings of Indian Civilisation

The most ancient civilisation of India is known by several names, including the Harappan, Indus, or Indus-Sarasvatī Civilisation. This civilisation was remarkable in many ways, particularly for fostering a well-balanced community where the differences between the rich and the poor were not significant. Instead of exploitation, the Harappan society was characterized by mutual accommodation.

Metallurgy

Metallurgy refers to the techniques used to extract metals from nature, purify or combine them, and the scientific study of metals and their properties.

What Is a Civilisation?

A civilisation represents an advanced stage of human societies. For a society to be considered a civilisation, it typically needs to exhibit several key characteristics:

• Government and Administration: A system to manage a complex society and its various activities.
• Urbanism: This includes detailed town-planning, the growth and management of cities, and essential services like water management and drainage systems.
• Variety of Crafts: The ability to manage raw materials, such as stone or metal, and produce finished goods like ornaments and tools.
• Trade: Both internal trade (within a city or region) and external trade (with distant regions or other parts of the world) for exchanging goods.
• Writing System: A form of writing is crucial for keeping records and communication.
• Cultural Ideas: Expressed through art, architecture, literature, oral traditions, or social customs, reflecting beliefs about life and the world.
• Productive Agriculture: Sufficient agricultural output to feed not only the villages but also the growing cities.

Civilisation emerged at different times across the globe. For instance, in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq and Syria), civilisation began about 6,000 years ago. Ancient Egypt followed a few centuries later. These early civilisations made enormous contributions that shaped humanity's progress.

Our focus in this chapter is on the Indian Subcontinent, specifically its northwest region. The Indus-Sarasvatī Civilisation flourished approximately from 2600 to 1900 BCE.

Tributary

A tributary is a river that flows into a larger river or a lake. For example, the Yamuna River is a tributary of the Ganga River.

From Village to City

The plains of Punjab (now divided between India and Pakistan) and Sindh (now in Pakistan) were made fertile by the Indus River and its tributaries, making them ideal for agriculture. Further east, the Sarasvatī River also flowed through Haryana, Punjab, parts of Rajasthan, and Gujarat a few millennia ago.

This fertile region saw significant development. Around 3500 BCE, villages began to grow into towns. With increased trade and other exchanges, these towns further developed into full-fledged cities by about 2600 BCE. This transformative period is often referred to as the 'First Urbanisation of India'.

The civilisation that emerged here is known by several names: Indus, Harappan, Indus-Sarasvatī, or Sindhu-Sarasvatī civilisation. Its people are called Harappans. This civilisation is recognized as one of the oldest in the world.

Many important cities of this civilisation are located across modern-day India and Pakistan. Here are some of the key cities and their modern states/regions:

• Dholavira - Gujarat (India)
• Harappa - Punjab (Pakistan)
• Kalibangan - Rajasthan (India)
• Mohenjo-daro - Sindh (Pakistan)
• Rakhigarhi - Haryana (India)

The Sarasvatī River

Many settlements of the Indus-Sarasvatī Civilisation were found along the Sarasvatī River. This river is known today as the Ghaggar in India and Hakra in Pakistan, forming the Ghaggar-Hakra River system. It is now a seasonal river, flowing only during the rainy season.

The Sarasvatī River holds cultural significance as it is first mentioned in the Rig Veda, an ancient collection of prayers. In this text, Sarasvatī is revered as both a goddess and a powerful river flowing from the mountains to the sea. Later historical texts describe the river gradually drying up and eventually disappearing.

Town-Planning

The cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, both now in Pakistan, were the first major sites of this civilisation to be discovered and identified in 1924. Initially, the civilisation was termed the 'Indus Valley Civilisation' because many sites were found in the Indus plains. However, this term is now considered obsolete because archaeologists have discovered that the civilisation extended far beyond the Indus Valley.

Major cities discovered later include Dholavira (Gujarat), Rakhigarhi (Haryana), and Ganweriwala (Cholistan desert of Pakistan). Hundreds of smaller sites, like Lothal (Gujarat), Farmana (Haryana), Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Bhirrana (Haryana), and Banawali (Haryana), have also been found. The Sarasvatī basin, in particular, shows a high density of these ancient sites.

The larger Harappan cities demonstrate remarkable town-planning:

• They were built with precise plans, featuring wide streets often oriented to the cardinal directions (North, South, East, West).
• Most cities were surrounded by fortifications, which are massive walls built for protective purposes.
• Cities typically had two distinct parts: an 'upper town' where the elite (higher layers of society like rulers, officials, administrators, and priests) likely lived, and a 'lower town' for common people.
• Dholavira was unique, having three distinct zones instead of two.
• Some large buildings served collective purposes, such as warehouses for storing goods meant for transport.
• Individual houses, varying in size, lined the streets and lanes. Interestingly, the construction quality was consistent for both small and large houses.
• Most buildings were constructed using bricks. In Dholavira, however, the foundations of most buildings were made with stones.

One of the most famous structures is the Great Bath in Mohenjo-daro.

• This was a small but elaborate tank, measuring about 12 x 7 metres.
• It featured advanced waterproofing materials like natural bitumen (a form of tar) applied over carefully laid bricks.
• The tank was surrounded by small rooms, one of which contained a well. A drain in one corner allowed it to be emptied and refilled with fresh water.
• While its exact purpose is debated, the presence of individual bathrooms in most houses rules out the idea of it being a common public bath. Archaeologists now consider interpretations such as a bath for the royal family or, more commonly, a tank used for religious rituals.

Water Management

The Harappans placed great importance on water management and maintaining cleanliness.

• Homes often had separate bathing areas, which were connected to a larger network of drains. These drains typically ran below the streets, efficiently carrying away waste water.
• In Mohenjo-daro, residents accessed water from hundreds of wells constructed with bricks.
• In other regions, water sources included ponds, nearby streams, or human-made reservoirs.
• Dholavira, located in the Rann of Kutch in Gujarat, showcased highly advanced water management. It had at least six large reservoirs, built with stones or carved directly into the rock. The largest of these measured an impressive 73 metres in length. Most reservoirs were interconnected by underground drains for effective water harvesting and distribution.

The construction and maintenance of such extensive water systems would have required a large number of workers and a well-organized administration to provide instructions and manage their labour. The need for regular cleaning and maintenance of reservoirs also suggests the presence of a local authority overseeing municipal administration.

What Did the Harappans Eat?

Harappan settlements were strategically located along river banks, providing easy access to water and fertile soil essential for agriculture. Archaeological discoveries reveal a diverse agricultural practice:

• Cereals: They grew barley, wheat, various millets, and sometimes rice.
• Pulses and Vegetables: A range of pulses and vegetables supplemented their diet.
• Cotton: The Harappans were the first in Eurasia to cultivate cotton, which they used to weave clothes.
• Farming Tools: They developed farming tools, including the plough, some designs of which are still used by farmers today.

Beyond agriculture, the Harappans also domesticated animals for meat and engaged in fishing in both rivers and the sea, as evidenced by the animal and fish bones found during excavations. Scientific analysis of clay cooking pots has revealed a varied diet, including dairy products, and surprisingly, spices like turmeric and ginger, and fruits like banana.

A Brisk Trade

The Harappans were active traders, engaging in commerce not only within their own civilisation (between cities and regions) but also with other civilisations and cultures both within and outside India.

Exports:

• Ornaments
• Timber
• Objects of daily use (like ivory combs)
• Probably gold and cotton
• Possibly some food items
• A highly favored export was carnelian beads, a reddish semi-precious stone primarily found in Gujarat. Harappan craftspeople mastered special techniques to drill and decorate these beads.
• They also crafted beautiful bangles from conch shells, a sophisticated skill given the hardness of the material.

Imports:

• The exact imports are less clear but likely included copper, as it was not abundant locally.

Harappan trade routes utilized land, rivers, and the sea for more distant destinations, marking the first intensive maritime activity in India. Many Harappan settlements were located in coastal regions of Gujarat and Sindh.

• Lothal, a small settlement in Gujarat, featured an exceptionally large basin measuring 217 metres in length and 36 metres in width. This massive structure is believed to have been a dockyard, used for receiving and sending boats for the transportation of goods.

To manage this elaborate trade, traders needed ways to identify their goods and each other. This led to the widespread use of thousands of small seals.

• These seals were typically made of steatite, a soft stone that was hardened through heating.
• Measuring only a few centimetres, they usually depicted animal figures and a few signs from an undeciphered writing system.
• While the writing and the symbolic meaning of the animal figures are still not fully understood, it is certain that these seals were integral to their trade activities.

The Lives of the Ancients

Archaeological excavations have unearthed numerous objects that provide insights into the daily lives, artistry, and beliefs of the Harappans.

Everyday Objects and Crafts:

• Bronze mirrors
• Terracotta pots
• Stone weights (indicating a system of measurement for trade)
• Bronze chisels
• Gamesboards engraved on stone (suggesting leisure activities)
• Terracotta whistles (toys for children or musical instruments)
• The discovery of games and toys shows that Harappans valued amusement for both adults and children.

Art and Figurines:

• A statuette often referred to as the 'Priest King', though its actual identity is unknown.
• Seals depicting symbols like a swastika.
• A seal showing a three-faced deity seated on a raised platform, surrounded by powerful animals, which suggests religious beliefs.
• The famous 'Dancing Girl', a bronze figurine from Mohenjo-daro, standing 10.8 cm high. This figurine is notable for the bangles covering an entire arm, a practice still observed in parts of Gujarat and Rajasthan today.
• A terracotta figurine seated in a 'namaste' gesture.
• A design on a pot from Lothal that appears to illustrate the story of the thirsty crow, finding a clever way to drink water from the bottom of a pot. This suggests the presence of oral traditions and storytelling.

These objects highlight that the Harappans engaged in various activities, including crafts, trade, entertainment, and possibly religious practices.

The End or a New Beginning?

Around 1900 BCE, the Sindhu-Sarasvatī Civilisation, despite its many achievements, began to decline. Cities were gradually abandoned. Any inhabitants who remained adopted a rural lifestyle, as the earlier system of government or administration seemed to have collapsed. Over time, the Harappan population scattered into hundreds, if not thousands, of smaller rural settlements.

Archaeologists have long debated the causes of this decline. Earlier theories suggested warfare or invasions destroyed the cities. However, there is no evidence of warfare or invasion; the Harappans appear to have been a relatively peaceful civilisation, with no traces of a standing army or weapons of war.

Currently, two main factors are widely agreed upon as contributing to the civilisation's collapse:

1. Climatic Change: Around 2200 BCE, a significant climatic change affected much of the world. This led to reduced rainfall and a drier phase, making agriculture more difficult and potentially reducing the food supply to the cities.
2. Drying Up of the Sarasvatī River: The Sarasvatī River, a vital water source, dried up in its central basin. This environmental change forced the abandonment of cities located along its banks, such as Kalibangan and Banawali.

These factors underscore humanity's deep dependence on climate and the environment for well-being and the survival of complex societies.

Despite the disappearance of the cities, much of the Harappan culture and technology endured. These elements were passed on and contributed to the subsequent phases of Indian civilisation, demonstrating that the end of one era often marks the beginning of another.

Before we move on ...

• The Indus, Harappan, or Sindhu-Sarasvatī Civilisation is one of the world's oldest and most remarkable ancient civilisations.
• The Harappans were known for their well-planned cities, efficient water management systems, diverse crafts, and extensive trade networks.
• Their society was supported by productive agriculture, which supplied a variety of crops to both villages and cities.
• The civilisation eventually declined around 1900 BCE, likely due to significant climatic and environmental changes, leading people to revert to a rural lifestyle.