Chapter Notes

Empires and Kingdoms: 6th to 10th Centuries

This period, from about 600 CE to 1200 CE, marks a new phase in Indian history after the decline of the great Gupta Empire. Instead of a single, massive empire, India saw the rise of many powerful regional kingdoms. While this led to political rivalries, it was also a time of incredible creativity in art, culture, and ideas across the subcontinent.

The 'Great King of Kings'

In northern India, a powerful ruler named Harṣhavardhana came to the throne in 606 CE.

• Dynasty and Capital: He belonged to the Puṣhyabhūti (or Vardhana) dynasty. His capital was Kannauj (also known as Kānyakubja) in modern Uttar Pradesh, a strategic city on the River Ganga.
• Empire: Harshavardhana expanded his rule over large parts of northern and eastern India. However, his ambition to expand south was stopped by Pulakeśhin II of the Chālukya dynasty.
• Patron of Arts and Learning: Harsha was a skilled poet and playwright himself, writing three plays in Sanskrit. He also supported scholars like Bāṇabhaṭṭa (or Bāṇa), who wrote one of the world's first novels, Kādambarī, and a biography of the king called Harṣhacharita.
• Religious Tolerance: Inscriptions show Harsha was a devotee of Shiva, but he also had a deep respect for Buddhism and supported all schools of thought.
• The Prayāga Assembly: Every five years, Harsha held a grand assembly at Prayāga (modern Prayagraj). Here, he would perform religious ceremonies and generously donate wealth to Buddhists, Brahmins, and the poor.

Xuanzang's Visit

A key source of information about Harsha's time comes from the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang (also known as Hsuan Tsang).

• Purpose of Visit: Like the earlier pilgrim Faxian, Xuanzang traveled to India (between 630 and 644 CE) to visit sacred Buddhist sites and collect religious texts. He took back over 600 Sanskrit manuscripts to China.
• Account of Harsha's Kingdom: Xuanzang was welcomed at Harsha's court. He described Kannauj as a beautiful and prosperous city and Harsha as a just and energetic ruler. His detailed travelogue provides historians with valuable insights into the politics, culture, and religion of the period.

A Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj

After Harsha's death in 647 CE, northern India faced political instability. The city of Kannauj became so important that three major powers fought for control over it for nearly two centuries (8th and 9th centuries). This is known as the Tripartite Struggle.

The three competing dynasties were:

1. The Pālas from the east (Bengal region).
2. The Gurjara-Pratīhāras from the west (Gujarat and Rajasthan region).
3. The Rāṣhṭrakūṭas from the Deccan (south-central India).

This long conflict had shifting fortunes, and no single power could achieve a final victory.

The Pālas

• Origin: After a period of chaos in Bengal, the people chose Gopāla as their king in 750 CE, founding the Pāla dynasty.
• Expansion: His successor, Dharmapāla, expanded the empire across eastern and northern India.
• Patronage of Buddhism: The Pālas were great patrons of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Dharmapāla founded major monasteries that were also great universities, such as Vikramaśhilā in Bihar and Somapura in Bangladesh. They also continued to support the famous Nālandā university.
• Economy: The Pāla empire was economically strong, benefiting from both internal trade and maritime trade with Southeast Asia through its eastern seaports.

The Gurjara-Pratīhāras

• Origin: Founded in the mid-8th century CE by Nāgabhaṭa I, this dynasty likely came from the 'Gurjara' region (between modern Gujarat and Rajasthan).
• Role in Defence: The Gurjara-Pratīhāras became famous for successfully resisting Arab invasions into northwest India, acting as a major defensive barrier for the subcontinent.
• Capitals: Their early capital was Bhillamāla (modern Bhinmal in Rajasthan), and it later seems to have shifted to Ujjayinī.

The Rāṣhṭrakūṭas

• Rise to Power: The Rashtrakutas were originally subordinate rulers (sāmantas) under the Chālukyas. In the mid-8th century, their leader Dantidurga overthrew the Chālukyas and established an independent kingdom.
• Empire and Capital: Their capital was at Mānyakheța (modern Malkheda in Karnataka). For nearly two centuries, they were a dominant power, with their empire covering much of the subcontinent.
• Art and Architecture: The Rashtrakuta king Krishna I commissioned the incredible Kailaśhanātha temple at Ellora (Maharashtra). This temple is not built but is carved out of a single, massive hillside, making it a gigantic sculpture.
• Patronage and Tolerance: The Rashtrakutas supported Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. The ruler Amoghavarṣha I, who ruled for 64 years, was a great poet and was drawn to Jainism but also patronised Hindu temples.

Kashmir

In the mountainous north, the kingdom of Kashmir was a major political and cultural centre.

• Historical Source: Our main source for Kashmir's history is the Rājatarangịnī ('The River of Kings'), a Sanskrit epic poem written by the 12th-century scholar Kalhaṇa.
• Rulers: Kalhaṇa describes many rulers, including the firm king Lalitāditya Muktāpīda of the Kārkoṭa dynasty and the powerful Queen Diddā, who ruled in the late 10th century.
• A Cultural Hub: Kashmir was a major centre for Sanskrit learning, philosophy (especially Kashmir Śhaivism), and arts. It served as a bridge for Buddhist scholarship between India, Tibet, and Central Asia.

The Deccan and Beyond

South of the Vindhya mountains, the Deccan Plateau and the far south were home to several powerful kingdoms locked in a struggle for supremacy.

The Chālukyas

• Founder and Key Ruler: The dynasty was founded by Pulakeśhin I in the mid-6th century CE. His grandson, Pulakeśhin II, was the most famous ruler. He expanded the kingdom and, most notably, defeated Harshavardhana's army, preventing Harsha's expansion into the Deccan.
• Capital: Their capital was Vātāpi (present-day Badami in Karnataka), known for its magnificent cave temples. An earlier capital, Aihole, has over a hundred temples.
• The Aihole Inscription: A famous Sanskrit inscription at the Meguti temple in Aihole, composed by the court poet Ravikīrti, praises the victories of Pulakeśhin II.
• Decline and Branches: Pulakeśhin II was eventually defeated by the Pallavas. By the mid-8th century, the Chālukyas were overthrown by the Rashtrakutas. Later branches of the dynasty, the Western Chālukyas and Eastern Chālukyas, ruled in different parts of the Deccan.

The Pallavas

• Capital and Peak: The Pallavas ruled from their capital at Kānchī (Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu). They reached their peak in the 7th century under rulers Mahendravarman I and his son Narasimhavarman I.
• Military Success: Narasimhavarman I, also known as 'Mamalla' (great wrestler), defeated Pulakeśhin II and captured the Chālukya capital of Vātāpi.
• Architecture: The Pallavas are famous for their unique style of temple architecture, especially the rock-cut caves and monolithic temples at the seaport of Māmallapuram (Mahabalipuram).
• Trade and Culture: Kanchipuram was a major cultural and economic hub. The Pallavas traded with Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. They promoted both Sanskrit and Tamil literature.

Further South

The ancient kingdoms of the far south, mentioned even in Ashoka's edicts, re-emerged during this period.

• The Pāṇḍyas: Based in southern Tamil Nadu with their capital at Madurai, they were a major power from the 6th century. They built many temples and engaged in maritime trade.
• The Cheras: They maintained their independence along the Kerala coast.
• The Cholas: The Chola dynasty was reborn in the 9th century under Vijayālaya, who made Tanjāvūr (Thanjavur) his capital. His successors expanded the kingdom, defeating the Pallavas. The Cholas would go on to build one of southern India's largest and longest-ruling empires, known for its administration, navy, and grand temples.

Other Developments

Beyond the rise and fall of dynasties, society, economy, and culture were also transforming.

Polity and Administration

• Decentralised Rule: Kings often ruled their core territories directly but governed outer regions through subordinate rulers called sāmantas (vassals). Sāmantas provided military support and managed local administration, but they could also become powerful and challenge the king.
• Local Self-Governance: South India, in particular, had a strong tradition of local assemblies. The Chola inscriptions at Uttaramerur, for example, detail a sophisticated system for selecting members to the village council (sabhā), showing a continuity of democratic traditions.

Trade, Economy and Urbanisation

• Land Grants and Agriculture: The system of granting land to individuals and religious institutions expanded. This helped bring more land under cultivation. Rulers like the Pallavas built many irrigation tanks, boosting agricultural production.
• Flourishing Trade: Trade was brisk. Merchant guilds were powerful. India's west coast traded with Iran, Iraq, and Africa, while the east coast connected with Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and China.
• Urban Centres: While some old cities declined, new ones emerged. Cities in the south continued to thrive as political, religious, and economic centres, with temples often acting as hubs of commerce.

Social Life

• The Varna-Jāti System: The society grew more complex with the multiplication of jātis (communities based on occupation or region). The system was flexible in some ways; for example, some rulers who were originally from the Śhūdra varṇa (labourers/craftspeople) came to be regarded as Kṣhatriyas (warriors/rulers).
• Social Divisions: However, discrimination also existed. Some texts mention the term aspriśhya ('untouchable'), and Xuanzang noted that certain groups like butchers and scavengers lived in suburbs outside the main city.
• Position of Women: The status of women varied by region and social class. Bāṇabhaṭṭa's writings show women involved in agriculture, crafts, and court life. Some women, like Queen Tribhuvana Mahadevi I of the Bhauma-Kara dynasty in Odisha, even ruled as powerful monarchs.

Cultural Life

• Religious Coexistence: Rulers generally patronised Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. These traditions often coexisted peacefully, sharing concepts like dharma and karma, and even sacred spaces.
• The Rise of the Bhakti Movement: This was one of the most significant developments. Starting in the 6th century, a massive wave of bhakti (personal devotion to a deity) spread across India.
  • Southern Origins: It began in the South with two groups of Tamil poet-saints: the 12 Ālvārs (devotees of Vishnu) and the 63 Nāyanārs (devotees of Shiva).
  • Impact: These saints came from diverse social backgrounds, including women. They composed poetry in regional languages, making religion accessible to everyone, regardless of caste or gender. This movement reshaped Indian society and literature.

A Galaxy of Mathematicians and Astronomers

This era was a golden age for Indian science.

• Brahmagupta: Born in 598 CE, he was a brilliant mathematician and astronomer. In his work Brahmasphutasiddhānta, he introduced rules for using zero, negative numbers, and fractions. His work was translated into Persian and Arabic, influencing mathematics across the world.
• Other Scholars: Other key figures include Bhāskara I (trigonometry) and Mahāvīra (mathematics). These scholars made precise astronomical calculations, such as predicting eclipses.

Foreign Invasions

India's northwestern frontier was a gateway for many groups over the centuries.

The Hūnas' Challenge

• Origin: The Huns were nomadic people from Central Asia. A branch, known as the Hūnas in India, weakened the Gupta Empire.
• Defeat and Assimilation: In the early 6th century, Hūna leaders pushed deep into India but were decisively defeated by Indian kings, including those of the Aulikara dynasty. After their defeat, the Hūnas did not leave but gradually assimilated into Indian society, adopting Indian culture, religions, and languages.

The Arabs Arrive on India's Shores

• Conquest of Sindh: In the early 8th century, an Arab army led by Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh (in modern-day Pakistan). He defeated the local ruler, King Dāhar.
• Stubborn Resistance: However, Arab attempts to push further into India were met with fierce and sustained resistance from Indian rulers like Nāgabhaṭa I of the Gurjara-Pratīhāras and Lalitāditya Muktāpīda of Kashmir. For three centuries, Arab dominion was limited to small states in Sindh and Punjab.
• Limited Impact: Unlike in other regions they conquered, the Arab conquest of Sindh had a limited political and religious impact. The Arabs eventually allowed Hindus and Buddhists to rebuild their temples and continue their worship.
• Cultural Exchange: Long before this invasion, India and Arabia had strong trade links. This period saw significant cultural exchange, especially in science, as Indian texts on mathematics, astronomy, and medicine were translated into Arabic in Baghdad.

Taking Stock

The period from the 6th to 10th centuries was far from a "dark age." It was a time of profound transformation.

• Political Landscape: The fall of a central empire led to the rise of dynamic regional kingdoms that competed for power but also created stable governments in their territories.
• Cultural Flourishing: This era saw major advances in temple architecture, sculpture, and literature in both Sanskrit and emerging regional languages.
• Religious Evolution: The Bhakti movement began, transforming the religious landscape with its emphasis on personal devotion accessible to all.
• Resilience: Indian society showed a remarkable ability to assimilate foreign groups like the Hūnas and to mount strong resistance against invaders like the Arabs.
• Economic and Social Integration: Trade connected different parts of India and linked the subcontinent to global networks, while new social groups were integrated into the flexible varna-jāti system.