Chapter Notes

How the Land Becomes Sacred

The world around us – the air we breathe, the water we drink, the land we live on, and all living things – is interconnected. Ancient texts like the Bhāgavata Purāṇa suggest that these are all parts of something greater. This chapter explores how certain places and natural features become viewed as sacred, and the impact this has on culture and life.

The chapter will answer the following questions:

• What is sacredness?
• How does land become sacred?
• How do sacred sites and pilgrimage networks connect with life and culture?
• What role did sacred geography play in the cultural integration of the Indian Subcontinent?

What is 'Sacredness'?

Sacredness is finding something of deep religious or spiritual meaning, worthy of respect, reverence, and considered holy or divine. This "something" can be:

• A special location, like a shrine, that inspires deep feelings and thoughts.
• A pilgrimage, which is a special journey.
• The route a pilgrimage takes.
• Even the land itself.

Sacredness is connected to religion, spirituality, geography, and traditions.

Sacred Places

Almost every religion in India has its own sacred places. Some religions, like Islam, Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism, originated outside India, but their followers in India also have places of worship and reverence. For example, the Dargah Sharif of Ajmer in Rajasthan and the Velankanni Church in Tamil Nadu are visited by people of many faiths.

Religions that originated in India, such as Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, have numerous sacred sites.

• Buddhism: Sacred sites are often places visited by the Buddha or where his relics (holy objects associated with a spiritual figure) are kept. Examples include the Great Stūpa at Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh) and the Mahabodhi Stūpa in Bodh Gaya (Bihar), where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment.
• Sikhism: Takhts are centers of spiritual authority. Examples include Takht Sri Patna Sahib (in Patna), the Akal Takht (at the Golden Temple in Amritsar), and Takht Sri Keshgarh Sahib (at Anandpur). Sikhs try to make pilgrimages to these places because they are linked to important Sikh Gurus.

Pilgrimage

A pilgrimage is a journey to a sacred place that holds special significance within a religion or belief system. A shrine is a place considered holy because of its connection to the divine, a sacred relic, or a spiritual figure.

A tīrtha literally means a place where one can cross a river. Symbolically, it becomes a place where one can cross from ordinary life to a higher, spiritual life.

India has a long history of pilgrimages. People travel from all over the country to visit ancient sites like Badrinath, Kedarnath, Amarnath in the Himalayas, and Kanyakumari in the south. According to Prime Minister Nehru in 1961, these pilgrimages show "the feeling of one country and one culture."

Tīrthayātrās (pilgrimages to various sacred sites) are not just physical journeys but also inner journeys that require a specific code of conduct. For thousands of years, people in India have been traveling across the subcontinent, leading to the entire geography being seen as sacred.

More Sacred Sites

Hinduism and many folk and tribal belief systems consider elements of nature to be sacred, including:

• Mountains
• Rivers
• Trees
• Plants
• Animals
• Sometimes even stones

Specific mountains, rivers, and forests are worshipped as deities. Many rivers are regarded as devis (goddesses), and certain species of trees, animals, and plants are considered holy. This comes from the idea that there is a divine presence in all of nature. Ultimately, the entire planet Earth is considered sacred – she is Mother Earth or Bhūdevī.

Here are some examples of such traditions:

• The Niyam Dongar hill in the Niyamgiri Range of Jharkhand is sacred to the Dongria Khond tribe. They believe it is the home of Niyam Raja, their supreme deity. Cutting trees there is prohibited.
• In the early 2000s, the Government of Sikkim identified sacred mountains, caves, lakes, rocks, and hot springs for protection.
• In the Nilgiris of Tamil Nadu, the Todas (a tribal community) consider many mountain peaks sacred and link them to their gods. This sacredness extends to plants, Shola forests, wetlands, stones, and trees.

Becoming Aware of Sacred Geography

Sacred geography refers to the interconnected network of sacred places across India.

Some examples of sacred networks include:

• The chār dhāmyātrā: Hindus aspire to visit these four sites, located in the north, south, east, and west of India.
• The 12 jyotirlingas: These are considered highly auspicious shrines dedicated to Shiva.
• The 51 Shakti pīṭhas: These sites cover the entire map of India (and parts of present-day Bangladesh and Pakistan).

The story of the 51 Shakti pīṭhas illustrates how the land itself becomes sacred. According to the story, when Satī immolated herself after being insulted, Shiva was so angry that he carried her body and refused to allow her last rites. To stop Shiva's anger, Vishnu cut up Satī's body, and the places where her body parts fell became the Shakti pīṭhas.

When pilgrims visit these major sacred places, they travel across India, experiencing different languages, customs, clothing, and foods. This helps them notice commonalities and strengthens the sense of unity within the country.

Sacred Ecology

Tīrthas are often located in natural settings like:

• Riverbanks
• Lakes
• Forests
• Mountains

These natural landscapes are seen as sacred spaces or punyakṣhetras. This perception encourages people to protect and preserve nature, as they see themselves as part of it. In these kshetras, geography, culture, and spirituality come together.

Rivers and sangams (confluence of rivers)

Rivers have been worshipped in India since Vedic times. The nadīstuti sūkta of the Rigveda praises rivers and invokes nineteen major rivers of ancient northwest India. Even today, rituals invoke the presence of important rivers:

• Ganga
• Yamuna
• Godavari
• Sarasvati
• Narmada
• Sindhu
• Kaveri

These rivers are lifelines for Indian civilization. Their sources, tributaries, and the places they flow through are considered sacred and visited by pilgrims. Rivers are often referred to with respect, such as 'Ganga ji' or 'Yamuna ji'.

Prayagraj, located at the confluence of the Ganga, Yamuna, and the invisible Sarasvati rivers, hosts the Kumbh Mela every six years. The Kumbh Mela has been listed by UNESCO as an 'intangible heritage of the world'.

The Kumbh Mela originates from the legend of amrita manthana. The devas (gods) and asuras (demons) churned the cosmic ocean to extract amrita, the nectar of immortality. To prevent the asuras from getting the amrita, Vishnu (in the form of Mohini) snatched the kumbha (pitcher) containing the amrita. A few drops fell over four places:

• Haridwar
• Prayagraj
• Nashik
• Ujjain

These are the places where the Kumbh Mela is held, and a dip in the rivers there during a prescribed period is considered auspicious.

Mountains and Forests

Mountains are often associated with legends, deities, or heroes. They are seen as a symbolic gateway from earth to heaven because of their height. That is why many tīrthas and temples are located on hilltops. The physical journey to these peaks is seen as a symbolic journey to reach the divine.

Trees, Forests and Sacred Groves

In many parts of India, trees are adorned with offerings like turmeric and kumkum. The peepul tree (also called 'pipal', 'bo tree', or 'bodhi tree', aśhvattha in Sanskrit) is sacred to Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism. Its botanical name is Ficus religiosa.

The Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa describe pilgrimages and sacred places. Many rural and tribal traditions claim that the heroes of these texts passed through their locality, with shrines marking such passages.

Over time, many rural and tribal communities across India decided to protect some natural forests from harmful activities. They saw those forests as the abodes of deities. Such forests are called sacred groves. Because of their sacred status, they shelter great biodiversity and help in water conservation.

Examples of names for sacred groves in regional languages:

• Malayalam: kāvu
• Tamil: kovilkādu
• Kannada: devare kādu
• Marathi: devarāī
• Khasi (Meghalaya): khlaw kyntang
• Hindi (Himachal Pradesh): dev van
• Jharkhand: sarnā
• Chhattisgarh: devgudi
• Rajasthan: oraṇ

In Tamil Nadu, local chronicles highlight the relationship between the deity of a sacred grove, nature, and humans. The groves' deities protect fruit bats, which are considered sacred and play a critical role in pollination and seed dispersal. Sacred groves thus evolve a harmonious relationship between the deity, the ecosystem, and humans.

From pilgrimage to trade

Pilgrims often encounter traders and merchants on their journeys. Pilgrims need various items, which traders can provide. As a result, pilgrimage routes and trade routes often overlap. Some traders might also be pilgrims, taking their goods to distant towns and cities while visiting sacred sites and shrines.

Major trade routes in ancient India included:

• Uttarapatha: Connected the northwestern and eastern parts of the Subcontinent.
• Dakṣhinapātha: Went from Kaushāmbī through Ujjayinī (Ujjain) to Pratiṣhthāna (Paithan).

Goods traded along these routes included:

• Precious stones (shells, pearls, gold, diamonds)
• Cotton
• Spices
• Sandalwood

Sacred Geography beyond India

The concept of sacred geography is not unique to India.

• Ancient Greece had sacred landmarks, from mountains to groves.
• Native Americans had a special bond with nature.
• The Maoris of New Zealand regard the Taranaki Maunga mountain as their ancestor and have granted it the rights and responsibilities of a human being.

Restoring and conserving the sacred

The harmonious relationship between people and sacred geography that sustained Indian civilization is now under strain.

When there is a conflict between our relationship with nature and development, people have spoken up to protect their environment, deities, and values. Sacred geography continues to be relevant, especially as sustainability becomes a global issue.