New Beginnings: Cities and StatesClass 7 Social Science Notes
New Beginnings: Cities and States
India's First Urbanisation
In the early 2nd millennium BCE (over a few centuries after 2000 BCE), the Indus/Harappan/Sindhu-Sarasvatī civilisation, India's 'First Urbanisation', fell apart. Cities were abandoned, and people reverted to rural lifestyles.
This happened because all the elements of the Harappan urban system disappeared:
- Elaborate private and public structures
- Crowded streets and busy markets
- Specialised communities like metalsmiths, potters, builders, weavers, and craftspeople
- A writing system
- A sanitation system
- An administration
- A larger state structure with a ruling class
For a thousand years, urban life vanished from India, except for a few towns in the north.
India's Second Urbanisation
In the 1st millennium BCE, a new phase of urbanisation started in the Ganga plains, parts of the Indus (or Sindhu) basin, and nearby areas. It gradually spread across the Subcontinent. We know this from:
- Archaeological excavations confirming ancient urban centres.
- Ancient literature (late Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain texts) referencing these cities.
This new phase is called India's 'Second Urbanisation', and it continues to this day.
Janapadas and Mahājanapadas
Towards the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, regional cultures in north India reorganised. People formed clans or groups, likely sharing a common language and customs. Each clan was linked to a territory or janapada, led by a rājā or ruler.
Janapadas grew as trade networks expanded and connected them. By the 8th or 7th centuries BCE, some early states merged, forming bigger units called mahājanapadas.
The most common list names sixteen mahājanapadas, from Gandhāra in the northwest to Anga in the east and Aśhmaka in central India, near the Godavari River. There may have been more, along with smaller janapadas.
Many mahājanapadas were concentrated in the Ganga plains due to:
- Agricultural growth in the fertile plains.
- Availability of iron ore in the mountains and hills.
- Formation of new trade networks.
The most powerful states were Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa, and Avanti.
Most mahājanapadas' capitals were large, fortified cities with moats for defense. Gateways were narrow to control movement. Many of these ancient capitals are still living cities today, some being 2,500 years old.
Early Democratic Traditions
Each janapada had an assembly or council called sabhā or samiti, where clan matters were discussed. Most members were likely elders. The rājā wasn't supposed to rule alone but take advice from these assemblies, ministers, and administrators. Some texts suggest an incompetent ruler could be removed by the assembly, but this wasn't necessarily a law.
Mahājanapadas expanded janapadas' basic principles. Some were monarchies, where the rājā was the ultimate authority, supported by ministers and an assembly of elders. The position was usually hereditary, passing from father to son. The king collected taxes, maintained law and order, built fortifications, and maintained an army for defense or war. Magadha (in Bihar), Kosala (in Uttar Pradesh), and Avanti (in Madhya Pradesh) were powerful monarchies.
However, Vajji (or Vṛijji) and Malla had a different system. The sabhā or samiti had more power, making decisions through discussion and votes, including choosing the rājā! These mahājanapadas, called ganas or sanghas, weren't monarchies but might be called democratic, as assembly members selected the ruler and made major decisions. Scholars often call them 'early republics', some of the earliest in the world.
More Innovations
The age of janapadas and mahājanapadas brought profound change, impacting Indian civilisation until today.
New schools of thought emerged (late Vedic, Buddhist, Jain), spreading teachings and literature through scholars, monks, nuns, and pilgrimages. Indian art also renewed, blossoming in the age of empires.
Urbanisation requires technology. The Harappan civilisation mastered copper and bronze. In the Second Urbanisation, iron metallurgy became important. Techniques of extracting and shaping iron were perfected from the early 2nd millennium BCE, but iron tools became widespread later. By the late 2nd millennium BCE, iron tools facilitated larger-scale agriculture. Iron also made better, lighter, sharper weapons than bronze, like swords, spears, arrows, and shields. There's evidence of warfare between mahājanapadas, and military campaigns and alliances led to new kingdoms and empires.
Another innovation was the first use of coins in India, driven by growing trade.
The first Indian coins were made of silver, a soft metal into which symbols were 'punched'; they are called 'punch-marked coins'. Later, coins of copper, gold, and other metals were made. Each mahājanapada generally issued its own coins, but coins from neighboring regions were also used in trade.
The Varṇa-Jāti System
As societies grow more complex, they organise into groups based on class, occupation, or other criteria. There could be groups for governance, administration, religion, education, trade, town-planning, farming, crafts, and arts.
In an ideal society, these groups would complement each other. However, divisions often lead to inequalities, with some groups gaining more wealth, power, or influence. Equality is an ideal that societies have often aspired to, but few have achieved.
In India, society was organised in a two-fold system:
- Jāti: A group or community with a specific professional occupation tied to their livelihood. Skills were passed down through generations. A jāti could be subdivided into sub-jātis with their own customs and traditions (marriage, rituals, food habits).
- Varṇa: A concept from Vedic texts. There were four varnas:
- Brahmins: Preserved and spread knowledge, performed rituals.
- Kshatriyas: Defended society and land, engaged in warfare.
- Vaishyas: Increased society's wealth through trade, business, or agriculture.
- Shudras: Artisans, craftspeople, workers, or servants.
Historically, individuals and communities changed occupations if needed. Droughts or calamities could force farmers to migrate to cities and find new jobs, or Brahmins might turn to trade or military activities. This complex system structured Indian society, organised activities, including economic ones, and provided stability. Over time, however, the system became rigid and led to inequalities and discrimination against lower jātis or communities excluded from the varna-jāti system.
The varna-jāti system has deeply impacted Indian society. Scholars agree it was more flexible earlier and became more rigid over time, especially during British rule. While varna-jāti has been an important factor, it's not the only one in Indian society.
Developments Elsewhere in India
In the 1st millennium BCE, important communication routes opened for trade, pilgrimage, and military campaigns. Two major routes were the Uttarapatha and the Dakșhinapatha. The first connected the northwest to the Ganga plains and eastern India. The second started from Kauśhāmbī (near Prayagraj), a mahājanapada capital, crossed the Vindhya Range, and went south.
Many lateral roads connected to ports on the western and eastern coasts, which were vibrant trade centers. In the east, cities like Śhiśhupalgarh (Sisupalgarh, Bhubaneswar), the capital of the Kalinga region, emerged, with a square ground plan, fortifications, and broad streets.
In the southern regions, cities began emerging around 400 BCE, with some signs of earlier commercial activity. Around this time, three kingdoms emerged: the Cholas, the Cheras, and the Pānḍyas. Ancient Tamil literature mentions these kingdoms and their kings.
Because the southern regions were rich in resources like precious stones, gold, and spices, they traded with the rest of India and overseas.
By 300 or 200 BCE, almost the entire Subcontinent was interconnected, with goods and culture traveling from region to region and beyond to Central and Southeast Asia.
Around the same time, the mahājanapadas ceased to exist, leading to new developments.