Chapter Notes

The Age of Reorganisation

Following the decline of the Maurya Empire, the Indian subcontinent experienced a period of significant change and upheaval. This era, often referred to as the "age of reorganisation," saw the emergence of numerous new kingdoms and the assimilation of foreign cultures. Let's explore the key aspects of this transformative period.

The Breakup of the Maurya Empire

After the reign of Aśhoka, the Maurya Empire began to weaken. Around 185 BCE, the last Maurya emperor was assassinated by his commander-in-chief, Puṣhyamitra Śhunga. This event led to the disintegration of the empire, just half a century after Aśhoka's rule.

• Many new kingdoms emerged, often from regions that were previously tributary kingdoms under Maurya control.
• The northwest region became vulnerable to invasions from outside the subcontinent.

The Age of Reorganisation

Some scholars call this period the "age of reorganisation" because existing regions were being restructured into new kingdoms. These kingdoms constantly competed for power, leading to frequent changes in the political landscape.

• The map of India underwent significant changes.
• People's lives were also affected by the shifting political dynamics.

Prominent Dynasties of the Subcontinent

Several dynasties rose to prominence during this period, each leaving its mark on the subcontinent.

Surge of the Śhungas

Puṣhyamitra Śhunga founded the Śhunga dynasty, which ruled over parts of north and central India.

• He performed the aśhvamedha yajña, a Vedic ritual, to establish himself as a powerful ruler.
• Although smaller than the Maurya Empire, he protected it from invaders and maintained friendly relations with the Greeks after initial military campaigns.
• The empire lasted only about a century.

The Śhunga period saw a revival of Vedic rituals and practices, although other schools of thought continued to flourish. Sanskrit became a preferred language for philosophical and literary works.

The Śhungas were patrons of literature, art, and architecture.

• The Bharhut Stūpa (in present-day Madhya Pradesh) showcases Śhunga art.
  • It was likely built during Aśhoka's time, but the Śhungas added carved railings and reliefs depicting stories from the Buddha's life.
  • These are considered some of the earliest examples of Buddhist art.

The Sātavāhanas

The Sātavāhanas ruled large parts of the Deccan region from the 2nd century BCE onward, to the south of the Śhunga Empire.

• Sometimes referred to as "Andhras."
• Their empire comprised present-day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Maharashtra.
• Their capital cities included Amrāvatī and Pratișhṭhāna (Paithan).

Trade and commerce flourished in the Sātavāhana kingdom.

• Coins found across India depict ships, indicating the importance of maritime trade.
• The type of ship suggests advanced shipbuilding and navigation technologies.
• Agriculture thrived in the Krishna-Godavari river system, providing economic stability.
• They had active trade networks reaching as far as the Roman Empire.
  • Exports included spices, textiles, sandalwood, and luxury items like gold-plated pearls and ivory.
  • Imports included glass and perfumed ointments.
  • Tolls and taxes on trade added revenue to the kingdom.

Economic prosperity and a relatively peaceful political period facilitated the development of literature, art, and culture.

• Princes were often named after their mothers, such as Gautamīputra Sātakarṇi, named after his mother, Gautamī Balaśhrī.
  • Gautamī Balaśhrī was a powerful queen who donated land to Buddhist monks and had an inscription carved in Nāśhik.
• Inscriptions in the Naneghat caves near Pune mention a Sātavāhana widow queen who performed Vedic rituals, including the aśhvamedha yajña, and donated land, cows, horses, elephants, silver coins, and other items to priests, guests, workers, scholars, and monks.
• Inscriptions are in the Brahmi script and include numerals that resemble today's shapes, providing evidence that modern numerals originated in India.
• The Sātavāhanas were devout followers of Vāsudeva (Krişhṇa) but also patronised other schools of thought.
  • They granted tax-free agricultural land to Vedic scholars, Jaina and Buddhist monks.
• They contributed to the Karla caves (near Lonavala in present-day Maharashtra), which were made for Buddhist monks.

In the 3rd century CE, the Sātavāhana Empire fragmented due to weak central control and economic decline.

Coming of the Chedis

After the decline of the Maurya Empire, Kalinga rose as a prominent power under the Chedi dynasty.

• Khāravela, one of their main rulers, was a devoted follower of Jain teachings, sometimes called bhikșhu-rāja or monk-king, although he respected all schools of thought.
• The Udayagiri-Khandagiri caves near Bhubaneswar, likely developed for Jain monks, feature intricate panels, statues, and spacious rooms carved into the rock, showcasing 'rock-cut architecture'.
• The Hāthīgumphā inscription, written in Brahmi script, records King Khāravela's accomplishments, including military campaigns and benevolent works.
• Khāravela created a 'council of ascetics and sages' and declared himself 'accomplished in extraordinary virtues, respector of every sect and repairer of every temple'.

Kingdoms and Life in the South

Between the 2nd or 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE, three powerful kingdoms rose to prominence in South India: the Cheras, the Cholas, and the Pānḍyas.

• These kingdoms often competed for control over the South.
• They also contributed to the region's growth in trade and culture.
• Aśhoka's empire stopped at these south Indian kingdoms, suggesting they remained independent.
• Khāravela claimed to have defeated an alliance of south Indian kings, but the location of the battle is unknown, and he does not seem to have invaded the southern region.

This period saw the advent of many poets whose works, collectively known as Sangam literature, defined the era, known as the Sangam Age.

• The word sangam is derived from the Sanskrit sangha, meaning 'association' and 'coming together,' referring to an assembly of poets.
• Sangam literature, the oldest in south India, consists of collections of poems consulted by historians to investigate the society and culture of the times.
• Sangam poetry expresses personal emotions such as love or societal values like heroism and generosity.

The Cholas

The Sangams refer to three "crowned kings" - the Cholas, Cheras, and Pāndyas. The Cholas were a powerful dynasty that ruled parts of south India from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE.

• The Chola king Karikāla is said to have defeated a combined force of the Cheras and Pānḍyas and established his supremacy.

Silappadikāram: The Tale of the Anklet is a famous epic composed soon after the Sangam collections.

• It tells the story of Kaṇṇagi, who lived with her husband Kovalan in the Chola capital city of Puhār (Kāveripattinam).
• Kovalan fell in love with a dancer and lost all his wealth.
• He returned to Kaṇṇagi, who forgave him.
• They traveled to Madurai, the capital of the Pānḍya kingdom, hoping to rebuild their lives.
• Kaṇṇagi gave Kovalan one of her anklets to sell, but he was falsely accused of theft and executed by the Pānḍya king.
• Kaṇṇagi proved his innocence and cursed Madurai, invoking the god of fire who destroyed the city.
• She walked west to the Chera kingdom, where she was honored as a goddess.
• Kaṇṇagi is still worshipped in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

Silappadikāram centers on the principles of justice and the ruler's dharma and takes us through cities rich in traded goods, three kingdoms, and several schools of thought.

Karikāla undertook many projects for the benefit of the people.

• The Kallanai or Grand Anicut is a water diversion system that diverts waters from the Kāveri to the central and southern parts of the Kāveri delta.
  • This enabled more land to be brought under cultivation, earning this area the name "rice bowl of the South."
  • Restored several times, it is still in use and helps millions of people in Tamil Nadu.

The Cheras

Also known as the Keralaputra (sons of Kerala), the Cheras ruled over the western parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, with their capital at Vanji (present-day Karur in Tamil Nadu).

• They played an essential role in shaping the region's cultural and economic history.
• They encouraged the growth of Tamil literature and patronized Sangam poets.
• The Cheras were known for their extensive trade connections with the Roman Empire and West Asia.
  • The kingdom became a hub for the export of spices, timber, ivory, and pearls.

The Pānḍyas

The Pāndyas ruled over parts of Tamil Nadu and the surrounding regions, with their capital at present-day Madurai.

• Their rule goes back several centuries BCE.
• Successive kings expanded the Pāndyan kingdom.
• Megasthenes mentions the kingdom in his work Indika as a prosperous one, with a strong administration and involved in active trade with distant powers like the Greeks and Romans.
• The Pāndyas were also an important naval power of the subcontinent.
• The later Pāndyas contributed greatly to the art, architecture, and overall prosperity of the region.
• They were known for their pearls, an important article of trade.

The Pāndyas left many inscriptions asserting their concern for their subjects' welfare and their encouragements to all schools of thought and belief.

Invasions of the Indo-Greeks

While native dynasties flourished in parts of the subcontinent, the same period saw the arrival of invaders through the northwest frontier. These invaders took control of the northwestern, northern, and central regions.

Let's examine the legacy of Alexander's brief campaign in the Indus plains.

• While retreating, he left satraps behind.
• Over time, these regional rulers established independent domains and came to be known as Indo-Greeks.
• After the decline of the Mauryas, the northwestern regions became an easy target for the Indo-Greeks.
• They were influenced by the rich local culture, leading to a blend of Greek and Indian elements in governance, art, language, and daily life.

The Heliodorus pillar, near Vidisha (Madhya Pradesh), is a notable example of such connections.

• It is named after an Indo-Greek ambassador, who in his inscription praises Vāsudeva as the "god of gods."
• The inscription also states, "Three immortal precepts (footsteps) [...] when practiced lead to heaven: self-restraint, charity, consciousness."
• Archaeologists have found many Indo-Greek coins, providing information about these rulers.
• Those coins were made of gold, silver, copper and nickel, often portraying a king on one side and Greek deities on the other.
• Some coins depicted Indian deities like Vāsudeva-Kṛiṣhṇa and Lakṣhmī.
• The rule of the Indo-Greeks ended with the invasions of the Indo-Scythians or Śhakas.

The Emergence of the Kuṣhāṇas

The Kuṣhāṇas, originally from central Asia, entered India in the 2nd century CE.

• At its peak, their empire extended from central Asia to large parts of northern India.
• Their rule marked a period of extensive cultural intermixing and had a profound impact on the history of the Indian subcontinent.
• Kaṇiṣhka, probably the most powerful ruler of the Kuṣhāṇa dynasty, encouraged art and culture, leading to the development of new artistic styles.
  • The Brahmi inscription on his statue reads, 'mahārāja rājadhirāja devaputra kaṇiṣhka', that is, 'The great king, king of kings, son of God, Kaṇiṣhka'.

The Kuṣhānas held control over significant sections of the Silk Route, and during their reign, trade grew, connecting India with other parts of Asia and the West.

Continuing the trend set under the Indo-Greek rulers, Kuṣhāṇa art and architecture, exemplified by the Gāndhāra and Mathurā schools of art, are celebrated for their fusion of Indian and Greek styles.

• The sculptures feature a variety of deities reflecting the peaceful co-existence of various schools of thought.
• This era saw the rise of representations of deities - like Sūrya or the sun god - which looked more similar to humans and the increase in the development of religious art, laying the groundwork for later temple architecture in the subcontinent.
• The Gāndhāra style, which emerged in the western regions of Punjab, blended Greco-Roman elements with Indian features.
  • Most sculptures and artifacts from this tradition were crafted in intricate detail from grey-black schist stone.
  • Sculptors produced many fine Buddha images with realistic anatomy and flowing robes.
• The Mathurā style developed in the Mathura region of present-day Uttar Pradesh and is known for its distinct Indian style.
  • Unlike the Gāndhāra style, it primarily used red sandstone for its sculptures and reflects less influence from Greco-Roman aesthetics.
  • This art form is known for its depictions of Indian deities, including Kubera, Lakṣhmī, Śhiva, Buddha, yakṣhas and yakṣhiṇīs and generally produced fuller figures with smooth modeling.

Despite political conflicts and power struggles, the period saw remarkable cultural exchange and assimilation. This shared heritage is evident in art and architecture, where styles interacted, but with a dominance of Indian themes. It was also the age when Sanskrit literature flourished, with the composition of major Indian texts such as the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyana.