Chapter Notes

The Rise of Empires

The chapter explores the rise of empires in ancient India, focusing on their characteristics, the factors contributing to their emergence, and their impact on Indian civilization. It also examines the Mauryan Empire in detail, including its administration, society, economy, and legacy.

The Big Questions

• What is an empire?
• How did empires rise and shape Indian civilisation?
• What factors facilitated the transition from kingdoms to empires?
• What was life like from the 6th to the 2nd century BCE?

What is an Empire?

An empire is a collection of smaller kingdoms or territories ruled by a powerful ruler or group. The word "empire" comes from the Latin word "imperium," which means "supreme power."

• Empires often arise after the powerful ruler wages war against smaller kingdoms.
• The smaller territories become tributaries to the emperor, retaining their own rulers but acknowledging the emperor's authority.
• The emperor rules the entire territory from a capital, usually a major economic and administrative center.

In ancient Sanskrit texts, emperors were referred to by titles such as:

• Samrāj: "the lord of all" or "supreme ruler"
• Adhirāja: "overlord"
• Rājādhirāja: "king of kings"

A tributary is a ruler or state that has submitted to an emperor and pays tribute (money, gold, grain, livestock, or other valuable goods) as a sign of submission, loyalty, or respect. Another term for 'tributary' is 'vassal.'

Features of an Empire

• Maintains an army to control tributary states, expand the empire, and protect it from external threats.
• Designs and maintains an administration with officials to manage territories, collect taxes, and maintain law and order.

Emperors generally allowed regional kings or chiefs to continue governing their areas in return for tribute and loyalty.

Kings were keen to expand their kingdoms into empires for several reasons:

• Ambition to control large territories and be remembered for posterity.
• Desire to access resources and build economic and military strength.
• A desire for great wealth for themselves and the empire.

Trade, Trade Routes, and Guilds

Maintaining an army and an empire requires significant economic power, control over the workforce, and access to resources. Economic activity, especially production and trade, is crucial for maintaining an empire.

• Establishing and controlling trade routes is of great importance.
• Increased trade leads to more income for producers and increased tax collections for the ruler.

Traded goods in ancient India included:

• Textiles
• Spices
• Agricultural produce
• Luxury items (gems, handicrafts)
• Animals

Indian goods were traded with distant countries by land and sea. Traders often formed guilds (śhrenīs), which were powerful associations of traders, craftsmen, moneylenders, or agriculturists.

• Guilds had an elected head and executive officers.
• Guilds brought together collaborators rather than competitors, as sharing resources and information was beneficial.
• Guilds had the autonomy to create their own internal rules, without interference from the king.

Guilds spread over large parts of India and endured for centuries. They exemplify the self-organizing abilities of Indian society.

The Rise of Magadha

The period between the 6th and the 4th century BCE was a time of significant change in north India. The mahājanapadas, large kingdoms with assembly systems, were prominent. Magadha (modern-day south Bihar and adjoining areas) rose in importance, setting the stage for the formation of India's first empire.

• Powerful early kings, such as Ajātaśhatru, played a crucial role in establishing Magadha as a dominant power.

Magadha's advantages:

• Resource-rich Ganga plains with fertile land, abundant forests, and elephants.
• Use of iron for agriculture and warfare.
• Iron ore and other minerals from nearby hilly regions.
• Increased agricultural produce due to iron ploughs.
• Lighter and sharper iron weapons for the army.
• Geographical advantage for trade due to the Ganga and Son rivers.

The production of surplus food grains allowed more people to focus on arts and crafts. Flourishing trade boosted the empire's income.

Around the 5th century BCE, Mahāpadma Nanda founded the Nanda dynasty in Magadha. He unified smaller kingdoms and extended his empire across parts of eastern and northern India.

• He began issuing coins, demonstrating his economic power.
• The Nanda dynasty maintained a large army.

The last emperor of the Nanda dynasty, Dhana Nanda, became unpopular due to oppression and exploitation. This paved the way for the Nanda empire to be conquered and absorbed into the Maurya Empire.

Sūtras are concise phrases that capture knowledge and ideas from ancient Indian texts.

The Arrival of the Greeks

While Magadha was rising in the east, the northwestern region of the subcontinent was home to smaller kingdoms along an ancient route connecting to the Mediterranean.

• Among them were the Pauravas, led by their king, Porus.

Alexander, a Greek king from Macedonia, campaigned against the Persian Empire (334-331 BCE).

• He conquered the Persian Empire, and Greek culture spread.
• His empire became one of the largest in world history, spanning three continents.

Alexander pushed further east into India (327-325 BCE), defeated Porus in Punjab, and encountered fierce resistance.

• Greek records mention that in some battles, "women fought side by side with their men."
• Alexander himself was wounded in battle.
• His soldiers, tired and homesick, refused to move deeper into India.
• Alexander and part of his army retreated to Persia, suffering heavy losses.

Alexander challenged Indian sages called Gymnosophists, who were renowned for their wisdom.

• The Gymnosophists responded calmly and intelligently to his questions.
• Alexander was impressed and spared them.

Historians view these exchanges as a meeting of Greek and Indian philosophies.

After Alexander's death in Babylon at the age of 32 (324-323 BCE), his empire was divided between his generals and the satraps.

The Mighty Mauryas

Around 321 BCE, after Alexander's departure, the Maurya Empire emerged in Magadha, founded by Chandragupta Maurya.

• It quickly absorbed the Nanda empire's territories and expanded beyond.

Chandragupta was aided by Kauṭilya (also known as Chāṇakya or Viṣhnugupta), who used his knowledge of politics, governance, and economics to create a great empire.

According to Buddhist texts, Kauṭilya was a teacher at Takșhaśhila (modern-day Taxila) university.

• He advised Dhana Nanda to change his ways or face the collapse of his empire.
• Angered, Dhana Nanda insulted Kauṭilya, leading to Kauṭilya's vow to end Nanda rule.

Chandragupta overthrew the Nandas and established his rule with Pāṭaliputra as his capital.

• Magadha's geography, economic system, and trade, combined with Kautilya's advice, helped Chandragupta expand his empire.
• He defeated the Greek satraps left behind by Alexander and integrated the region into his empire.

After defeating the Greeks, Chandragupta maintained a diplomatic relationship with them.

• He hosted Megasthenes, a Greek historian and diplomat, in his court.
• Megasthenes wrote about his travels in India in his book Indika, which is now lost except for excerpts quoted by later scholars.

Kauṭilya had a clear vision of how a kingdom should be established, managed, and consolidated.

• In his Arthaśhāstra, he listed directives in areas like defense, economics, administration, justice, urban planning, agriculture, and people's welfare.

• One of his most important concepts is the saptānga, the seven parts that constitute a kingdom:

  • Swami (The Ruler): The king or leader, who is the head of the state and responsible for its governance.
  • Amatya (The Minister): The advisors and administrators who assist the ruler in decision-making and implementation of policies.
  • Janapada (The People/Territory): The population and land of the kingdom, which form the basis of its economic and military strength.
  • Durga (The Fortified Capital): The fortified city or capital that serves as the center of administration and defense.
  • Kosha (The Treasury): The state's financial resources, including taxes, revenue, and wealth, which are essential for maintaining the army and administration.
  • Danda (The Army): The military force responsible for protecting the kingdom from external threats and maintaining internal order.
  • Mitra (The Allies): The friendly states and allies who provide support and assistance to the kingdom in times of need.

According to Kauṭilya, the saptānga must create a settled, well-protected, and prosperous kingdom, maintained through warfare and alliances. He emphasized law and order and detailed laws to deal with corruption.

Kauṭilya believed that a king should increase his power by promoting the welfare of his people and should prioritize their interests.

The King Who Chose Peace

Another important Maurya king was Aśhoka (268-232 BCE), Chandragupta's grandson.

• He expanded the empire to cover almost the entire Indian subcontinent, except for the southernmost region.

An encounter during his campaign in Kalinga (modern-day Odisha) changed his life.

• Seeing the death and destruction, Aśhoka gave up violence and adopted the path of peace and non-violence taught by the Buddha.

Aśhoka embraced Buddhist teachings and sent emissaries (someone sent on a special mission, often of a diplomatic nature) to Sri Lanka, Thailand, Central Asia, and beyond to spread the message of the Buddha.

Aśhoka is called a "great communicator" because he issued edicts engraved on rocks or pillars, containing his messages for the people.

• Most of these edicts were inscribed in Prakrit, the popular language in many parts of India, and written in the Brahmi script.

In his edicts, Aśhoka called himself "Devanampiya Piyadasi" ("Beloved of the Gods," "one who regards others with kindness").

• The language of the edicts shows that he wanted to be seen as a benevolent and compassionate ruler.
• He supported the overall wellbeing of kingdoms that were not part of his empire.
• He provided medical care for people and animals, prohibited hunting and cruelty to animals, and established rest houses and wells along main roads.
• He encouraged all sects to accept each other's best teachings.

Aśhoka detailed instructions on the conduct of his officials to ensure fairness.

The Maurya empire continued for half a century after Aśhoka's death. However, his successors were unable to hold the empire together, and it fragmented around 185 BCE.

Life in the Mauryan Period

Cities like Pāṭaliputra were bustling centers of governance and commerce.

• They had palaces, public buildings, and well-planned streets.
• A well-organized taxation system and brisk trade strengthened the treasury.
• Officials, merchants, and artisans played key roles in city life.

Megasthenes' account provides insights into Mauryan society.

• Agriculture was an important source of revenue, with two crops sown a year.
• Famines were rare, and granaries were well-stocked.
• Farmers were protected from war.
• Blacksmiths, potters, carpenters, jewellers, and other artisans lived in the cities.
• Cities were well-planned and had signage on the streets.
• Communication happened through couriers.
• Houses were made of wood and could be up to two storeys tall.
• Streets had vessels of water for fire emergencies.

People wore cotton dresses and leather shoes.

Some Contributions of the Mauryas: Life and People

The Mauryas made significant contributions to art and architecture.

• The Great Stūpa at Sanchi is one of India's oldest stone structures and a fine example of Indian architecture.
• Aśhoka constructed many stūpas, chaityas, and vihāras for worship, study, and meditation.
• The rock sculpture of an elephant at Dhauli symbolizes the Buddha.
• The Sarnath pillar and its capital, with four lions, symbolize royal power and the Buddha’s teachings.

The coins of the Mauryan period also featured various symbols.

The Fragile Nature of Empires

Empires can bring about political unity and reduce warfare but are often established and maintained through force. Several factors can cause their decline:

• Regions seeking independence.
• Increased demands for tribute leading to resentment.
• Weak rulers following powerful emperors.
• The difficulty of holding large territories together.
• Economic crises caused by natural calamities.

Empires are a paradox because they can bring unity and prosperity but are also fragile due to their reliance on force and repression.