Chapter Notes

Turning Tides: 11th and 12th Centuries

The 11th and 12th centuries represent a major period of transition in Indian history. While the previous era saw Arab incursions that had a limited overall impact, this period was defined by deeper and more disruptive invasions by Turkic powers from Central Asia.

However, this was not just a story of invasion and destruction. During these same two centuries, many powerful Indian kingdoms flourished. They resisted invaders, launched their own naval expeditions, built magnificent temples, and fostered incredible achievements in science, philosophy, and the arts. This chapter explores both the conflicts and the cultural high points of this pivotal era.

The Ghaznavid Invasions

In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Hindu Shāhis were a powerful dynasty ruling over parts of modern-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Punjab. They played a crucial role in defending north India by controlling the Khyber Pass, a key mountain passage that invaders and traders had used for over 2,500 years to enter the subcontinent.

The Shāhis, with help from other Indian rulers, successfully resisted many invasion attempts. However, they were ultimately defeated by a rising Turkic power, the Ghaznavids, whose capital was Ghazna (modern Ghazni in Afghanistan).

Mahmūd of Ghazni

The Ghaznavid ruler Mahmūd (often called Mahmūd of Ghazni) conquered the Hindu Shāhi kingdom in the early 11th century. He first defeated King Jayapāla and later his son Ānandapāla in a major battle in 1008. This victory gave Mahmūd easy access to the plains of northern India.

Mahmūd conducted a total of 17 military campaigns in India. His primary goal was not to establish a permanent empire but to plunder the immense wealth of the region and take it back to Ghazni.

Key features of his campaigns:

• Military Tactics: His army was known for its rapid marches and effective use of cavalry, especially archers on horseback, which often proved decisive against Indian forces.
• Destruction of Temples: Mahmūd targeted wealthy cities and temples. In 1018, he sacked Mathura, destroying its grand temple. He also looted and destroyed temples in Kannauj. His most famous raid was on the Somanātha Śhiva temple in Gujarat, a wealthy seaport. Despite strong resistance, his forces destroyed the temple and carried away its treasures.
• Human Cost: His campaigns involved not only plunder but also the slaughter of thousands of civilians and the capture of prisoners, including children, who were sold in the slave markets of Central Asia.

Historians debate Mahmūd's motives. While plundering the vast wealth stored in temples was a primary driver, contemporary accounts also show he was motivated by a desire to spread his version of Islam and destroy symbols of other faiths.

Al-Bīrūnī

Accompanying Mahmūd of Ghazni on some of his campaigns was Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī, a brilliant Persian scholar from Khwārizm (modern Uzbekistan). He was a true polymath: a mathematician, astronomer, historian, and linguist.

During his time in India, al-Bīrūnī:

• Learned Sanskrit to read Indian texts directly.
• Conversed with Indian scholars to understand their traditions.
• Wrote an encyclopaedic book on India, covering its religion, philosophy, sciences, and geography. He often compared Indian intellectual achievements with those of the Greek and Islamic worlds.
• Translated classic Indian texts, like Patanjali's Yogasūtras, into Arabic.

Al-Bīrūnī also noted the devastating impact of Mahmūd's invasions, writing that they "utterly ruined the prosperity of the country" and caused Indian sciences to retreat to regions the invaders had not yet reached, like Kashmir and Varanasi.

Bhāskarāchārya

Despite the disruptions in the north, scientific learning continued to flourish elsewhere in India. Bhāskara II, more famously known as Bhāskarāchārya, was one of India's greatest mathematicians and astronomers. Born in 1114, likely in modern Maharashtra, he came from a family of scholars.

His most famous works, all written in Sanskrit, include:

• Līlāvatī: A text on basic mathematics, written in an engaging style with puzzles and riddles.
• Bījaganita: A more advanced book on algebra.
• Siddhāntaśhiromaṇi: A major treatise on mathematical astronomy.

Bhāskarāchārya had a gift for poetry and used it to make his scientific writings clear and enjoyable. His works were so influential that they were studied for centuries and later translated into Persian. Some of his mathematical techniques were centuries ahead of their time in Europe.

Kingdoms of Eastern and Southern India

While north India faced invasions, powerful dynasties in other parts of the country were building stable kingdoms and creating lasting cultural legacies.

Eastern India

• Sena Dynasty: After the Pālas, the Senas became the dominant power in Bengal. Unlike the Pālas who patronized Buddhism, the Senas promoted Hinduism. Their court was home to famous poets like Jayadeva, the author of the Gītagovindam.
• Eastern Gangas: This dynasty ruled over Kalinga (modern Odisha) and became a stable power by the end of the 12th century. They had marriage alliances with the Cholas. Their most famous architectural contributions are the Jagannātha temple at Puri and the grand Sun temple at Konark.

The Kākatīyas

In the 12th century, the Kākatīyas established their authority over modern Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.

• Their capital was Orugallu (modern Warangal).
• They promoted village self-governance and developed efficient revenue and irrigation systems.
• They were great patrons of both Sanskrit and Telugu literature and built impressive temples like the Thousand Pillar temple at Hanamkonda.

The Hoysalas

Originating in southern Karnataka, the Hoysalas rose to power by breaking away from the Western Chālukyas.

• Their capitals were Velāpura (Belur) and Dvārasamudra (Halebidu).
• They are best known for their unique style of temple architecture, featuring incredibly intricate carvings. The temples at Belur and Halebidu are now UNESCO World Heritage sites.

The Cholas, Masters of the Seas

The Cholas were a powerful dynasty in Tamil Nadu. Under two remarkable rulers, they expanded their influence across the sea.

Rājarāja Chola I (reigned 985-1014)

• He expanded the Chola kingdom into parts of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
• He conquered the northern part of Sri Lanka and islands believed to be the Maldives.
• He built the magnificent Bṛihadīśhvara temple at Thanjavur, a masterpiece of architecture.
• Although a Shaivite, he supported the construction of a Buddhist monastery at the request of the ruler of the Śhrīvijaya Empire (in Southeast Asia).

Rājendra Chola I

• Rājarāja's son, Rājendra Chola I, expanded the empire even further, conducting campaigns up to Bengal and Odisha. To commemorate his victories in the north, he took the title 'Gangaikonḍachola' ("the Chola who seized the Gangā").
• He is most famous for his successful naval expedition against the Śhrīvijaya Empire. The conflict arose from competition over the sea trade route to China, which passed through the Strait of Malacca, controlled by Śhrīvijaya. Rājendra's navy defeated the Śhrīvijaya forces but did not occupy their territory, suggesting the expedition's goal was to secure trade routes for Indian merchants.
• The Cholas also undertook large public works like roads and irrigation canals. However, constant wars drained their resources, and by the 13th century, their empire declined.

Back to the North

As the Cholas declined, new powers and new threats were emerging in northern India.

The Paramāras and King Bhoja

The Paramāras ruled in the Malwa region (modern Madhya Pradesh). Their most celebrated ruler was King Bhoja, who reigned for nearly half a century from 1010.

• A Powerful Ruler: He led many successful military campaigns and even sent forces to help the Hindu Shāhis against Mahmūd of Ghazni.
• A Great Builder: He founded the town of Bhojpur, built the impressive (though unfinished) Bhojeshwar Temple, and created a vast lake near Bhopal for irrigation, a part of which still exists as the Bhojtal.
• A Scholar-King: Bhoja was a prolific author who wrote on a wide range of subjects, including architecture (Samarāngaṇa Sūtradhāra), governance, medicine, and a commentary on the Yogasūtras. His capital, Dhārā, became a famous center of learning.

A Turning Point: The Ghūrids in India

After Mahmūd, the Ghaznavid Empire weakened. A new power arose from the mountainous region of Ghūr in Afghanistan. Their leader, Muhammad, known as Muhammad Ghūrī, had a different objective than Mahmūd: he sought not just plunder, but territorial conquest in India.

The Battles of Tarain

Muhammad Ghūrī's expansion brought him into conflict with the Chāhamānas (also known as Chauhāns), a powerful Rajput dynasty ruling from Ajmer. Their king was Pṛithvīrāja III, popularly known as Prithviraj Chauhan.

1. First Battle of Tarain (1191): Pṛithvīrāja III defeated Muhammad Ghūrī.
2. Second Battle of Tarain (1192): Muhammad Ghūrī returned with a larger army and defeated Pṛithvīrāja, who was then executed.

This battle was a major turning point. It opened the door for the Ghūrid conquest of north India.

The Ghūrid Conquest

Unlike Mahmūd, Muhammad Ghūrī aimed to establish permanent rule. After capturing Delhi, he returned to Ghazni, leaving his trusted general Qutb-ud-din Aibak to consolidate his conquests. Aibak would later go on to found the Delhi Sultanate.

Another of Ghūrī's commanders, Bakhtiyār Khiljī, led campaigns into eastern India.

• He conquered Bihar and Bengal, defeating the Sena dynasty.
• He is infamous for destroying the great Buddhist monasteries and universities at Nālandā and Vikramaśhilā. This act is seen by historians as a major blow that accelerated the decline of Buddhism in India.

Bakhtiyār Khiljī's attempt to launch an expedition into Tibet failed disastrously. He was assassinated in 1206, the same year Muhammad Ghūrī was killed. Their territories in India, however, remained under the control of their generals.

Governance, Trade, and Cultural Life

Despite the constant warfare, many aspects of life continued to thrive.

• Governance and Economy: Powerful kingdoms required large armies, which in turn needed efficient administration to collect taxes. Agriculture remained the foundation of the economy, but both internal and external trade (especially with China and Southeast Asia) grew.
• Art and Architecture: This period saw the construction of many magnificent temples, such as the Kandāriyā Mahādeva temple built by the Chandellas at Khajuraho, in addition to those built by the Cholas, Hoysalas, and Eastern Gangas.
• Literature and Science: Besides Bhāskarāchārya and King Bhoja, the Chālukya ruler Someśhvara III authored the Mānasollāsa, an encyclopaedia on royal life and governance.
• Philosophy and Social Reform: Two influential thinkers emerged in south India:
  • Rāmānujāchārya: A philosopher-saint who developed the school of viśhişhṭādvaita vedānta. He emphasized bhakti (devotion) and surrender to the divine as the path to liberation.
  • Basaveśhvara: A social and religious reformer who founded the Lingāyat movement. He rejected caste distinctions and ritualism, teaching personal devotion and the equal spiritual potential of all men and women. His teachings are conveyed through short Kannada poems called vachanas.

Taking Stock: A Period of Change and Continuity

The 11th and 12th centuries were a time of profound change and enduring continuity.

Change:

• The military campaigns of Turkic invaders led to the start of foreign rule in parts of north India.
• This involved significant destruction of temples and centers of learning.
• Islam began to spread as a new religion in the Indian subcontinent.

Continuity:

• Large parts of India, especially in the south, remained under the control of powerful Indian kingdoms.
• Internal and external trade continued to flourish.
• Cultural traditions persisted, with new schools of philosophy, great literary and scientific works, and the construction of monumental temples.
• Indian culture continued to influence Southeast Asia, as seen in the magnificent Angkor Wat temple in Cambodia, built in the 12th century and originally dedicated to Vishnu.