Chapter Notes

A Journey Through Indian Architecture

Architecture is the art and technique of designing and constructing buildings. It's a field where India has shown incredible skill for thousands of years, creating a rich and diverse heritage of structures that are both beautiful and functional. This journey will explore some of the most important types of Indian architecture through different periods.

The Beginnings: Harappan Cities

The earliest known urban planning in the Indian subcontinent comes from the Indus/Harappan/Indus-Sarasvati civilisation. Their architecture shows a remarkable focus on organisation and public utilities.

• Urban Planning: Cities were carefully laid out, with wide streets and narrow lanes often aligned with the cardinal directions (north, south, east, west).
• Materials: Most cities, located in river plains, were built with bricks made from abundant clay. However, sites like Dholavira in the Rann of Kachchh used stone, which was locally available.
• Key Features: A standout feature was the advanced drainage and water management system. Almost every home in cities like Mohenjo-daro had a bathing area, and a network of drains carried used water out of the city.
• Social Structure: The design of large houses in Mohenjo-daro, with multiple floors, suggests that owners may have lived upstairs to avoid street noise, while servants lived downstairs.

Structural Stupa Architecture

With the rise of Buddhism from the 4th or 3rd century BCE, new architectural forms appeared. The most significant of these was the stupa.

• Purpose: Stupas are dome-shaped structures built to house the relics (remains or belongings) of the Buddha or revered monks. They started as simple mounds of brick or stone.
• Evolution: Larger stupas evolved into complex ritual centres with railings (vedikā) and ornamental gateways (toraṇas). These gateways were often elaborately carved with scenes from the Buddha's life.
• Worship: A key ritual was circumambulation, where a worshipper would walk around the stupa in a clockwise direction, a practice known as pradakṣhịna.
• Symbolism: In this early phase, the Buddha was not shown in human form but was represented by symbols like footprints, the wheel of dharma, or the stupa itself.

The main stupa at Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh, originally patronised by Emperor Aśhoka, is a prime example of early monumental stone architecture in India. Stupas are also an important part of Jain religious architecture.

Rock-Cut Architecture

This unique style involved carving entire structures directly out of solid rock. It was an efficient and highly durable way to create religious spaces.

• Function: These caves were used for worship, as residences for monks, and for assemblies.
• Early Examples: The Udayagiri-Khandagiri caves near Bhubaneswar, Odisha, are among the earliest, carved for Jain monks starting in the 2nd century BCE.
• Masterpieces: Maharashtra has magnificent rock-cut complexes like Ajanta and Ellora. The scale of these sites is immense, requiring thousands of tonnes of rock to be chipped away. Ellora is famous for its Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain caves, including the colossal monolithic Kailaśha Temple.

Water Structures

India's monsoon climate has made water management crucial for millennia. This led to the development of diverse and sophisticated water structures.

• Ancient Roots: The tradition goes back to the Harappan civilisation, with Dholavira's large reservoirs being a key example.
• Reservoirs: At Shringverpur in Uttar Pradesh, excavations revealed a series of large, interconnected reservoirs fed by the Ganga river. These tanks were designed to allow silt to settle, a common and clever water-cleaning technique.
• Stepwells: In Gujarat and Rajasthan, a tradition of stepwells (vāvs or bāorīs) developed. These were not just for storing water but were also works of art and social spaces. The Rani ki Vav is a spectacular example with multiple pillared levels and hundreds of statues.
• Temple Tanks: Temples often had attached water reservoirs called puṣhkariṇīs, used for both water harvesting and rituals.

Classical Temple Architecture

Temples have been central to India's cultural, social, and economic life for centuries. Emerging during the Gupta era, they evolved from earlier stupa and rock-cut forms into magnificent works of art.

Key Elements and Philosophy

• Construction: Temple construction followed principles laid out in the śhilpaśhāstra, ancient treatises on arts and crafts.
• Main Parts:
  • Garbhagriha: The innermost sanctuary where the deity's image (mūrti) is placed.
  • Maṇḍapas: One or more pillared halls leading to the garbhagriha.
  • Śhikhara / Vimāna: The tower built directly above the garbhagriha. It is called a śhikhara in North Indian temples and a vimāna in South Indian temples.
  • Entrance: A ceremonial gateway, known as a gopuram in the south or a toraṇa in the north.
• Symbolism: A temple is planned as a representation of the Puruṣha, or the cosmic being. The tower represents the head, and the base platform represents the feet. Worship is seen as a spiritual journey from the outer world to the inner world of the garbhagriha.

Examples of Classical Temples

• Bṛihadīśhvara Temple (Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu): Built by Chola king Rājarāja Chola I around 1010, this temple is famous for its towering vimāna (over 60 metres high) and massive Nandi statue carved from a single stone.
• Lingarāja Temple (Bhubaneswar, Odisha): Built in the 11th century, this temple complex dedicated to Shiva features large mandapas and is known for its ornate carvings on sandstone.
• Dilwara Temples (Mount Abu, Rajasthan): A group of Jain temples built between the 11th and 13th centuries, renowned for their stunningly intricate carvings in white marble.
• Terracotta Temples of Bishnupur (West Bengal): Built in the 17th and 18th centuries, these unique brick temples are decorated with elaborate terracotta panels depicting religious and daily life scenes.

Other Important Religious Sites

• The Golden Temple (Punjab): Known as the Harmandir Sahib, this is the holiest shrine for Sikhs. The temple was founded by Guru Ramdas Sahib, the fourth Sikh Guru, and its construction was continued by the fifth Guru, Arjan Dev, in 1588.
• Sharada Peetha Temple (Jammu and Kashmir): A renowned center of learning dedicated to Goddess Śhāradā that flourished between the 6th and 12th centuries CE.
• Hidimba Devi Temple (Himachal Pradesh): A 16th-century shrine in Manali dedicated to Hidimbā, the wife of Bhīma from the Mahābhārata.
• Jageshwar Group of Temples (Uttarakhand): A complex of about 124 stone temples built between the 8th and 18th centuries.

The Architecture of Mosques

Mosques are places of worship for followers of Islam. In India, their architecture often blended Islamic traditions with local Indian craftsmanship, creating a style known as Indo-Islamic architecture.

• Key Features: Mosques are oriented towards Mecca. They often include domes, towers called minarets, and a niche in the wall called a mihrab that indicates the direction of prayer. Large mosques for Friday prayers are called Jama Masjid.
• Indo-Islamic Elements: This style often features domes, arches, latticed stone screens (jālis), and floral motifs. In regions like Rajasthan, local features like overhanging balconies (jharokhās) and pavilion domes (chhatrīs) were also integrated.
• Examples:
  • Jama Masjid in Ahmedabad (Gujarat): Built in the 15th century from yellow sandstone, it blends Hindu and Islamic elements, featuring temple-style pillars and intricate jālis.
  • Jama Masjid in Delhi: India's largest mosque, built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in the mid-17th century. Made of red sandstone and white marble, it has tall minarets, large domes, and a courtyard that can hold 25,000 people. Its walls are decorated with calligraphy of verses from the Qur'an.

Forts and Palaces

Forts were vital for protecting kingdoms and were strategically built on hills or near important trade routes. They often contained palaces, residences, and military barracks.

• Mehrangarh Fort (Jodhpur, Rajasthan): An imposing fort built from massive blocks of red sandstone, overlooking the city of Jodhpur. The palace inside features intricate carvings and stone latticework.
• Agra Red Fort (Uttar Pradesh): Originally a brick fort, it was rebuilt with red sandstone by Emperor Akbar. His grandson, Shah Jahan, a lover of marble, replaced many sandstone buildings with white marble palaces.
• Orchha Fort-Palace (Madhya Pradesh): Built by the Bundela Rajput kings in the mid-16th century, this complex blends Rajput and Mughal styles.
• Mysuru Palace (Karnataka): Also known as Amba Vilas Palace, this magnificent structure is an example of Indo-Saracenic architecture. It is famous for its carved wooden doors, painted ceilings, and a golden throne displayed during the Dasara festival.

Tombs and Mausoleums

In the Islamic tradition, grand tombs called mausoleums were often built for rulers and saints. They served as testaments to the greatness of a dynasty.

• Humayun's Tomb (Delhi): Commissioned by Humayun's wife Bega Begum in 1558, this tomb was designed by Persian architects and is a landmark of Mughal architecture. It is known for its perfect symmetry and the use of the six-pointed star, a symbol found in Hindu, Islamic, and Jewish traditions.
• Taj Mahal (Agra): Built by Shah Jahan in the mid-17th century as a mausoleum for his wife, Mumtaz Mahal. It is a masterpiece that blends Persian (charbagh gardens, arches), Arabic (calligraphy), and Indian (chhatrīs, lotus designs) architectural styles. The delicate inlay work of semi-precious stones in white marble is one of its most famous features.

Traditional Houses

The design of houses across India varies greatly with geography, but a common feature in traditional mansions is a central courtyard.

• Havelis (Rajasthan): The traditional mansions of the Shekhawati region's nobility and merchant class feature a central courtyard and are famous for their elaborate painted frescoes.
• Chettinadu Houses (Tamil Nadu): Belonging to a community of wealthy merchants, these palace-like homes were built with materials from all over the world, such as teakwood from Burma and marble from Italy. The central courtyard was used for rituals and for sun-drying food items.

Churches in India

Christian communities have lived in India for centuries, with the first churches traditionally built in Kerala. Church architecture in India ranges from imitations of European styles to unique blends with local traditions.

Colonial Architecture

During the British Raj (mid-19th to early 20th century), a distinctive style called Indo-Saracenic architecture became popular.

• Style: It blended Islamic, Hindu, and European Gothic elements.
• Features: This style is characterized by domes, pointed arches, minarets, chhatrīs, and intricate patterns inspired by Mughal and Rajput traditions.
• Examples: The Madras High Court and the Victoria Memorial Hall in Kolkata are prominent examples of this colonial style.

The Importance of Preserving Our Architectural Heritage

India's architectural heritage is one of the richest in the world. These structures are not just bricks and stones; they are expressions of spirituality, beauty, and advanced engineering.

• The Challenge: Many monuments, especially lesser-known ones, are in a state of neglect. Preserving thousands of centuries-old structures is a massive task.
• Our Responsibility: While government bodies are responsible for conservation, citizens must also feel a sense of ownership. Appreciating this heritage is the first step. Our Constitution lists "to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture" as a Fundamental Duty for every citizen.