Reshaping India’s Political MapClass 8 Social Science Notes
Reshaping India's Political Map
The period discussed in this chapter is often referred to as the latter part of the 'medieval period' of Indian history. It's important to understand that the term "medieval" was originally used for European history, specifically the time between the fall of the Roman Empire (around the 5th century CE) and the Renaissance (Europe's cultural revival in the 14th-16th centuries). Applying this term to India can be tricky because Indian and European histories are very different. For the purpose of this chapter, "medieval" simply refers to the period from the 11th to the 17th centuries.
Spelling variations exist because of the challenges in transcribing the Persian script into the Roman script. For example, "Khalji" and "Khilji" refer to the same dynasty. Similarly, "Mughal" is the standard spelling, but "Moghul" or "Mughul" are also sometimes used.
A new chapter in India's history began in the early 11th century with invasions from beyond the Hindu Kush mountains. These invasions significantly reshaped India's political map. While India had seen warfare before, the scale of invasions from outside the Indian subcontinent was unprecedented. Many of these invaders were Central Asian, of Turkic or Afghan origin. They were drawn to India by its wealth, territorial ambitions, and often a desire to spread their own versions of their religion, sometimes through force.
This chapter explores the changing landscape of India from the 13th century onward.
Rise and Fall of the Delhi Sultanate
The story begins with the Delhi Sultanate, established after the defeat of King Prithviraj Chauhan in 1192. He ruled over parts of northwestern India. The Sultanate was ruled by five successive dynasties of Turkic-Afghan origin:
- The Mamluks (or 'Slave dynasty')
- The Khiljis (or Khaljis)
- The Tughlaqs
- The Sayyids
- The Lodis (or Lodhis)
While the Delhi Sultanate controlled parts of northern India, other kingdoms like the Eastern Gangas and the Hoysalas resisted their expansion and became centers of art, culture, and administration. Delhi also became a more important city in the political landscape of northern India.
The Sultanate period was marked by political instability and efforts to expand territory. This led to military campaigns that raided villages and cities, plundered, and destroyed temples and centers of learning.
Successions were often violent, with many sultans seizing power by killing their predecessors. Because of this, the average reign of a sultan was only about nine years.
Ala-ud-din Khilji
At the beginning of the 14th century, Ala-ud-din Khilji launched military campaigns across north and central India, sacking and plundering cities. He also successfully defended against Mongol invasions, who were trying to add India to their vast empire. Ala-ud-din Khilji called himself 'the second Alexander'.
His slave-general Malik Kafur expanded the Sultanate southward, conquering kingdoms and plundering their wealth to finance the Sultanate's military. He also attacked Hindu centers like Srirangam, Madurai, Chidambaram, and possibly Rameswaram.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq
A few decades later, Muhammad bin Tughlaq ruled Delhi and further expanded the Sultanate's territory. For the first time since the Mauryan Empire, most of the Indian subcontinent was under one ruler. However, this dominance was short-lived because Muhammad bin Tughlaq's plans were often poorly executed.
One such plan was moving the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (Devagiri), believing its central location would improve control over the empire. People were forced to travel over 1,000 km, and when the plan failed, the capital was shifted back to Delhi, resulting in great loss of life.
Another failed plan was the introduction of "token currency," where cheap copper coins were given the value of silver or gold coins. Although this was a progressive idea (like modern currency), it created confusion in trade and encouraged people to counterfeit the copper coins, causing the economy to decline.
The sultans and their court lived in luxury, funded by plunder from military campaigns, taxes on common people, and the slave trade. Enslaved people provided free labor or were sold in Central Asia. However, plunder negatively impacted trade networks and agricultural production. There were also numerous attacks on sacred images in Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu temples, motivated by plunder and iconoclasm (the destruction of religious images).
Some sultans also imposed the jizya, a tax on non-Muslims in exchange for protection and exemption from military service. This tax was discriminatory, creating an economic burden and social humiliation, and incentivized conversion to Islam.
Timur's Invasion
At the end of the 14th century, Timur, a Turkic-Mongol conqueror from central Asia, invaded northwest India and devastated Delhi. His objectives were to wage war against "infidels" and plunder wealth. Large numbers of people were killed or enslaved, and the city was left in ruins. Timur soon withdrew, leaving chaos behind.
In the aftermath, the Lodis established the last dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, but its territory had significantly shrunk due to resistance from other states and kingdoms within India.
Resistance to the Delhi Sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate faced resistance throughout its rule.
Eastern Ganga Kingdom
While many kingdoms fell under its control, the Sultanate failed to subdue the Eastern Ganga kingdom of Kalinga (present-day Odisha and parts of Bengal and Andhra Pradesh). Narasimhadeva I, a ruler in the mid-13th century, was known for his military strength and cultural achievements. He repelled multiple invasions and defeated the Delhi Sultanate's governor of Bengal. To celebrate these victories, he built the Sūrya temple at Konark.
Musunuri Nayakas
During the time of the Tughlaqs, the Musunuri Nayakas, Telugu chieftains, united over 75 chieftains, formed a confederacy, defeated the Delhi Sultanate forces, and expelled Muhammad bin Tughlaq's army from Warangal (present-day Telangana) around 1330-1336.
Hoysalas
Ala-ud-din Khilji was attracted to the South's wealth. At the time, the Hoysalas ruled parts of southern India (mostly present-day Karnataka) and resisted several attacks from the Delhi Sultanate, remaining independent. However, weakened by these attacks and internal conflicts, the Hoysala kingdom declined and was absorbed into the Vijayanagara Empire in the mid-14th century.
Regional Sultanates
The Delhi Sultanate also faced rebellions from the emergence of independent regional Sultanates. The Bahmani Sultanate rose in the mid-14th century and controlled much of the Deccan for a time. Powerful Sultanates also emerged in Gujarat, Bengal, and other regions, leading to alliances and wars.
Parts of Rajasthan remained beyond the Delhi Sultanate's reach. In the 15th century, Rana Kumbha, the ruler of the Mewar kingdom, resisted the Sultanate and repelled invasions from later sultanates.
The Vijayanagara Empire
As the Delhi Sultanate became unstable, a new power emerged in the south. In the 14th century, Harihara and Bukka, two brothers who had served as governors under Muhammad bin Tughlaq, rejected Delhi's authority and established an independent kingdom that became the Vijayanagara Empire.
To the north of the Vijayanagara Empire, the Bahmani Sultanate was a rival, eventually splitting into five independent states called the Deccan Sultanates: Bijapur, Golconda, Berar, Ahmednagar, and Bidar. The Vijayanagara rulers fought with Bijapur and Golconda, as well as with the Gajapati rulers of Odisha.
Krishnadevaraya
In the 16th century, the Vijayanagara Empire reached its peak under Krishnadevaraya, who expanded and secured the empire's dominance over the Deccan. He was a military and cultural leader, patronizing poets and scholars in Sanskrit, Telugu, and Kannada. He composed an epic poem in Telugu called Āmuktamālyada, which included ideas about good governance. Krishnadevaraya provided grants to temples, including Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh and the Vitthala temple in Vijayanagara.
Foreign travelers visited Vijayanagara for trade. Portuguese travelers were treated well because they sold horses, which the king didn't want them to sell to enemy kingdoms.
After winning many wars, Krishnadevaraya died in 1529. In 1565, the Deccan Sultanates formed a coalition and defeated the Vijayanagara forces led by Ramaraya at the Battle of Talikota. The city was sacked, and much of its population was killed. The empire fragmented into smaller regions ruled by Nayakas, former military governors, and ended in the mid-17th century.
The Mughals
As the Delhi Sultanate weakened, Babur, a Turkic-Mongol ruler from Samarkand (modern-day Uzbekistan), turned his attention to India. A descendant of Timur, Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat in 1526, in what became known as the First Battle of Panipat. This victory relied on gunpowder, field artillery, and matchlock guns, which had recently been introduced to warfare in India. This defeat marked the end of the Delhi Sultanate and the beginning of the Mughal Empire, with Babur taking control of the Delhi throne.
Babur and India
Babur wrote an autobiography called Baburnama, which shows him as cultured and intellectually curious, with an appreciation for architecture, poetry, animals, and flora. However, he was also a brutal conqueror, slaughtering populations, enslaving people, and building "towers of skulls."
Babur found India to be lacking in charms but acknowledged its wealth and the skills of its artisans. Ultimately, he decided to stay in India and build his empire because of its wealth.
After Babur's death in 1530, his son Humayun struggled to hold the empire together. Sher Shah Suri, an Afghan leader, established the Sur Empire over parts of north India, introducing reforms. However, the Sur Empire was short-lived, as Humayun soon regained the lost territory.
Before Humayun's return, Himu (or Hemu), a military commander under the Suri rulers, captured Delhi and ruled briefly as Hemchandra Vikramaditya. He was injured in battle (the Second Battle of Panipat) against Babur's grandson, Akbar. Captured, Himu was brought to Akbar, who had him beheaded. Akbar then reclaimed Delhi for the Mughals.
Akbar
Akbar became emperor at the age of thirteen, after his father Humayun's accidental death. He aimed to bring the entire subcontinent under Mughal control, using both brutality and tolerance.
In early conquests, Akbar showed no mercy, such as at the fort of Chittor (or Chittorgarh), where he besieged for months. Rajput soldiers resisted fiercely, inflicting heavy losses on the Mughal army. When the fort was breached, they died fighting, and hundreds of women committed jauhar. Akbar ordered the massacre of civilians and enslaved the survivors.
Akbar believed that a monarch should always be intent on conquest. As his empire grew, he used political strategies to stabilize it. He formed marriage alliances with princesses of neighboring kingdoms, welcomed Rajput and regional leaders into his court, abolished the jizya, and promoted the doctrine of sulh-i-kul (peace with all or tolerance of all faiths). Through interfaith dialogues, appointment of Hindu officials, and other reforms, Akbar gained the support of many Rajput rulers.
Akbar's reign lasted almost fifty years (1556-1605). While the middle period was peaceful, the final fifteen years involved military campaigns in Kashmir, Sindh, the Deccan, and Afghanistan.
Jahangir and Shah Jahan
Akbar's son Jahangir shared his father's love for art and architecture and tried to expand the empire into the Deccan. Shah Jahan fought rebellions and is best known as the builder of the Taj Mahal in Agra. The Taj Mahal is considered one of the great architectural marvels of the world. This period was a peak for art and architecture, including Humayun's tomb in Delhi and the Red Forts in Delhi and Agra. Classical arts and music flourished, along with calligraphy and miniature painting.
Aurangzeb
The violent successions of the Sultanate period were repeated during the succession of Shah Jahan, who fell ill in 1657. He wanted his eldest son, Dara Shikoh, to inherit the throne, but Dara's younger brother Aurangzeb defeated him in battle and executed him, sending his severed head to their father. Aurangzeb also removed his other brothers, arresting and executing one and driving the other into exile. To secure his rule, Aurangzeb imprisoned his father Shah Jahan in the Agra Fort until his death. Aurangzeb crowned himself emperor in 1658 and named himself "Alamgir" (conqueror of the world), ruling for almost forty-nine years.
Aurangzeb was skilled in military matters, conquering parts of the South. Under his reign, the Mughal empire reached its greatest expansion, but faced rebellions. Aurangzeb spent the last twenty-five years of his life fighting wars in the Deccan. Maintaining large armies depleted the empire's treasury and strained the administration, which contributed to the decline of Mughal power after his death in 1707.
Aurangzeb, a Sunni Muslim, was deeply religious and led an austere life. Unlike Akbar, he observed all religious rituals and gradually banned practices he considered un-Islamic, such as music and dance in his court. He reimposed the jizya tax on non-Muslims and a pilgrimage tax on Hindus, both of which had been abolished by Akbar.
Some scholars argue that Aurangzeb's motives were primarily political, aiming to strengthen his empire, and point to grants and protections he gave to some temples. However, Aurangzeb's own farmans (edicts) reveal his religious motives. In 1669, he ordered the demolition of schools and temples of "infidels" and the suppression of their teachings and religious practices. Temples at Banaras (Varanasi), Mathura, Somnath, and Jain temples and Sikh gurudwaras were destroyed. Aurangzeb also persecuted Muslims of other sects, including Sufis, and Zoroastrians (Parsis).
Resistance to the Mughals
Several rebellions contributed to the erosion of Mughal power.
Peasant Communities
Peasant communities rebelled against harsh exploitation. In the 17th century, the Jat peasantry killed an oppressive Mughal officer. In a subsequent battle, 20,000 men fought the Mughal army, but their leader was killed, and the rebellion was suppressed.
Tribal Groups
Tribal groups, such as the Bhils, Gonds, Santhals, and Kochs, fought back against attempts to annex their territory or impose taxes. Some were subdued or integrated into the Delhi Sultanate or Mughal Empire, while others, especially those in forested, hilly, or remote regions, maintained some independence.
Rani Durgavati
Rani Durgavati of the Garha kingdom was a valiant queen. She ruled wisely and made her kingdom prosperous, keeping an army of 20,000 soldiers and 1,000 elephants. She repelled several attempted invasions. When a general sent by Akbar attacked her kingdom in 1564, she led her troops and fought bravely, despite being outnumbered. Wounded, she took her own life to avoid capture. Her sacrifice became a symbol of regional pride and resistance.
Surge of the Rajputs
The Rajputs, located in northwest India, often battled invading forces because of their location and traditions. After the Khiljis' conquest, the Mewar and Marwar clans emerged. Stories of their heroic deeds are still told today.
Rana Kumbha was one valorous ruler. Rana Sanga unified Rajput clans, won battles against sultans, but was defeated by Babur at the Battle of Khanwa.
Maharana Pratap of Mewar refused to accept Mughal rule and became a symbol of Rajput resistance. At the Haldighati pass in 1576, the Mughal army had the upper hand, but Maharana Pratap escaped and waged guerrilla warfare against the Mughals from the Aravalli hills. He received support from the Bhils, who joined his troops and shared their knowledge of the terrain.
Some Rajput states allied with the Mughals through diplomacy and marriage, but Mewar did not accept Mughal dominance. During Aurangzeb's reign, Rajput nobles, including Durga Das Rathore of Marwar, rebelled, limiting Mughal authority in Rajasthan.
The Ahoms
In the 13th century, the Ahom ethnic group migrated from present-day Myanmar to the Brahmaputra Valley and formed the Ahom kingdom.
During the Sultanate and Mughal periods, the Ahom rulers resisted attempts to expand into the Northeast. Their unique paik system required every able-bodied man to provide service to the state through labor or military duty in exchange for land rights. This allowed the rulers to create infrastructure and maintain a large force without a permanent army. Over time, the Ahoms adopted the local culture, promoted agriculture, encouraged diverse faiths, and contributed to the traditions of Assam.
In the 17th century, when Aurangzeb sent Mughal forces to capture the Ahom capital Garhgaon, the Ahoms used their knowledge of the terrain and guerrilla tactics to repel the attack. In the Battle of Saraighat (1671), the Ahom military commander Lachit Borphukan and his 10,000 men defeated a Mughal force of 30,000 soldiers, preserving their independence.
The Rise of the Sikhs
In 15th century Punjab, Guru Nanak spread the message of equality, compassion, and the oneness of God (Ik Onkār). His followers became known as Sikhs. Although Sikhism began as a spiritual movement, the later Sikh Gurus responded to intolerance and persecution under some Mughal rulers.
When Emperor Jahangir found out that Guru Arjan had supported his rebellious son, he had Guru Arjan tortured to death. This prompted Guru Hargobind, Guru Arjan’s son, to introduce martial training and form a Sikh army, which fought against the Mughal forces.
The Sikhs' sacred text, Guru Granth Sahib, was first compiled by Guru Arjan. It emphasizes that there is one God for all and enjoins Sikhs to practice truthfulness, compassion, humility, and self-control.
In 1675, a group of Kashmiri Pandits sought protection from religious persecution from Guru Tegh Bahadur. The Guru decided to stand with them and court martyrdom. Aurangzeb ordered him to convert to Islam. Despite torture, the Guru refused and was publicly beheaded in Chandni Chowk, Delhi. In response, his son Guru Gobind Singh established the Khalsa, a martial brotherhood committed to justice, equality, and defense of the faith, which clashed with the Mughal forces.
As the Mughal Empire declined, Sikh confederacies emerged in the Punjab region and were unified by Maharaja Ranjit Singh at the turn of the 19th century. Ranjit Singh established a centralized Sikh Empire, spanning much of the Northwest, including parts of Kashmir, which resisted Mughal remnants and later British expansion.
Administering India
Administration under the Delhi Sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate introduced a political system centered on the sultan, who had absolute authority as the political and military head. His duties included defending the territories, collecting taxes, and staying informed about public affairs. The sultan was assisted by a council of ministers.
One instrument of administration was the iqta system, where territories were assigned to nobles (iqtadars) to collect taxes, which, after expenses, were to go to the Sultan's treasury to maintain the army. This created a network of local administrators loyal to the central authority, but their posts were not hereditary. While taxes were levied on trade, the burden fell heavily on the peasantry, and some accounts report cruelty in extracting revenue.
The Mughal Administrative Framework
Aiming for greater control, Akbar reorganized his administrative machinery.
- The Diwan took care of finances.
- The Mir Bakhshi looked after military matters.
- The Khan-i-Saman was in charge of public works, trade, industry, agriculture, and the royal household.
- The Sadr was responsible for justice, religious, and educational matters.
Ministers were assigned to each of the empire's twelve provinces (subahs), which were further subdivided, with checks and balances enforced between officials. At the village level, traditional structures of self-governance continued.
Akbar also instituted the mansabdari system. Mansabdars (officers) were expected to maintain a precise number of elephants, horses, camels, and troops for the state, making it possible to assemble an army quickly without a permanent, centralized army. Regular inspections ensured compliance. Mansabdars were generally paid by being assigned land (jagirs) and were therefore also known as jagirdars.
Despite Akbar's tolerance, non-Muslims were kept in a minority in the higher levels of administration, and officials of foreign origin were favored over those of Indian origin.
Todar Mal, Akbar's finance minister, introduced an efficient revenue system. He made detailed surveys for crop yields and prices and determined prices for each crop. He also initiated a systematic survey of the land, which boosted revenue collection and strengthened the state.
People's Lives
Despite shifting political powers, India witnessed vibrant economic activity due to its agrarian foundations, industries, community-based and temple-based economies, and trade networks. Building on systems like śhrenis (guilds), jātis (communities), and credit systems, the subcontinent remained wealthy.
The Sultanate period saw progress in infrastructure, especially roads in north India, bridges, canals, and irrigation works, which expanded during the Mughal period. Coins in several metals were introduced as currency. The Mughals used a system with a rupaya of silver and a dam of copper.
Agriculture was the mainstay of the Indian economy. Rulers relied on agricultural revenue to maintain their administration and military, extracting land revenue at one-fifth of the produce, though some sultans raised it as high as one-half. The expansion of irrigation systems increased agricultural productivity, allowing for multiple crops, including food (rice, wheat, barley, pulses, sugarcane, spices) and non-food items (cotton, silk, wool, dyes, timber, jute). Agriculture output varied, and the peasantry suffered famines, with relief depending on the ruler's benevolence.
Apart from textiles, craftspeople made a range of products, from weapons to utensils to ornaments and jewelry. Shipbuilding developed, essential to river and overseas trade. Indian goods were exported through coastal towns such as Calicut, Mangalore, Surat, Masulipatnam, and Hooghly. India imported less than it exported, including silk, horses, metals, and luxury goods. Merchants from Arabia, Persia (Iran), and Central Asia settled in Indian ports, contributing to trade.
The hundi system enabled merchants to transfer funds across political boundaries without physically transporting currency. Trader communities, such as the Marwaris, operated across political regimes, developing systems of credit and trust independent of official structures.
Many temples were centers for worship, learning, social interaction, and performing arts. They created ecosystems with markets. Ruling classes donated land and wealth (dāna) to temple deities, managed by temple managers who developed community infrastructure and pilgrim accommodations. Temples provided merchants with credit and funded trade.
While early periods saw prosperity, the late 1600s witnessed economic stress. Peasants were left with a small share of their produce after taxes and payments, causing many to lose their land and become bonded laborers.
Historians suggest that craftspeople and laborers faced harsh economic conditions. India was still a land of abundance, but the wealth was concentrated among rulers, courtiers, officials, and merchants. Frequent warfare caused displacement.
At the level of the common people, there were clashes over sacred sites that had been desecrated. However, people of different faiths and communities lived peacefully side by side, economically dependent on each other.
Rulers patronized the arts, and communities maintained traditions, adapting to changing circumstances. Interactions resulted in a shared heritage.
India endured, economically prosperous but politically unstable. The period faced challenges but survived through resilience, art, literature, spirituality, and values.
Before We Move On...
- This period witnessed foreign invasions led by Turkic, Afghan, and Mughal forces, causing destruction and reshaping India's political boundaries.
- There were instances of religious intolerance, with Buddhists, Jains, Hindus, Sikhs, Zoroastrians, and tribals suffering persecution.
- Agriculture and trade expanded, enhancing India's wealth, but the economic condition of common subjects remained harsh.
- Indian society showed adaptability and resilience in rebuilding and preserving cultural traditions, blending indigenous and foreign elements to create new expressions. Art and culture, including architecture, music, and painting, flourished.