The Rise of the MarathasClass 8 Social Science Notes

The Rise of the Marathas

The chapter addresses three main questions:

• Who were the Marathas?
• How did they become a major power in India before the British?
• What impact did the Maratha Empire have on Indian history?

Literary History

Literary history refers to how writings in prose (ordinary writing) or poetry have developed in a particular language over time.

Who are the Marathas?

The Marathas are a group of people originally from the Deccan plateau, specifically the present-day state of Maharashtra. They are identified by the Marathi language they speak, which has a rich history of literature dating back to the 12th century. This chapter will explore their rise to political power and how they changed the course of India's history.

In the 13th century, most of Maharashtra was ruled by the Yadava dynasty, with its capital at Devagiri (present-day Daulatabad). In the early 14th century, the Khilji Sultanate from Delhi defeated the Yadava dynasty.

Amidst these political changes, cultural traditions continued, especially those related to bhakti, which means devotion to the divine. Between the 7th and 17th centuries, saints and seekers across India chose the path of bhakti for spiritual growth, rather than focusing only on rituals. These saints came from various parts of society and wrote devotional songs and poems in the languages of the common people, spreading their messages widely.

In Maharashtra, popular saints during this time included Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Tukaram, and Ramdas. They translated important religious texts like the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita into Marathi, making their teachings accessible to the masses. Some saints also focused on social organization and political awareness, much like the Sikh gurus. This gave the society a strong cultural base, which later helped the Marathas organize into a political power.

By the 17th century, some Maratha chiefs made initial attempts to establish their own rule, but they were not successful until Shivaji came to power and united the Marathas.

Foundation of Maratha Power and the Rise of Shivaji

Shivaji was born in 1630 into the Bhonsle clan, to Shahji and Jijabai. Shahji served the Deccan sultanates and was often away from his family. Shivaji grew up in his jāgīr (estate) at Pune, under the care of Jijabai and trusted officials, receiving values and a good education. At this time, the Pune region suffered from constant conflict between the Deccan sultans, causing hardship for the common people.

At the age of sixteen, Shivaji began military campaigns, first securing the Pune region by capturing neglected and unoccupied forts and strengthening their defenses. His vision of a sovereign kingdom or Swarājya (self-rule) developed over the years, extending to political, economic, and cultural aspects.

Shivaji's kingdom expanded to India's west coast. To control coastal resources, he established a navy, which was revolutionary at the time. The Bijapur Sultanate (ruled by the Adil Shahi dynasty) had merchant ships but lacked a full-time navy to protect the coast. Even the Mughal Empire had a limited navy. The Maratha Navy was therefore a significant development, and its achievements became legendary.

To defend his people against powerful enemies, Shivaji used guerrilla warfare. This tactic involves using small groups of people in a focused way, with speed, surprise, and knowledge of the terrain to defeat larger armies.

His successes angered the Bijapur Sultanate, which sent the general Afzal Khan to confront him. Shivaji and his advisors convinced Afzal Khan to meet him alone at the foot of the Pratapgad fort, in a dense forest. There, Shivaji killed Afzal Khan, and the Marathas, hidden in the mountains, routed the Khan’s army with guerrilla attacks.

Soon after, the Mughal nobleman Shaista Khan invaded Shivaji's territories with a large army for three years. Shivaji, with only a few soldiers, raided Shaista Khan's camp at night. The Khan barely escaped, losing a few fingers, and quickly left Maharashtra. This daring raid is similar to a modern-day surgical strike, which is a military attack intended to damage only a specific target, with minimal damage to the surroundings.

As revenge for the three-year-long wave of attacks, Shivaji sacked Surat, a wealthy port city of the Mughal Empire (in present-day Gujarat). He obtained a large treasure worth almost one crore of rupees, a huge amount for the time. He was careful not to attack religious places and even spared the house of Mohandas Parekh, a charitable man. He sacked Surat again after a few years. These events were reported in the London Gazette, an English newspaper, which described how Shivaji demanded money from European agents in Surat, threatening to ruin the city if they refused.

The sacking of Surat was a major insult to the Mughal Empire. Aurangzeb sent Jai Singh, a Rajput general, to defeat Shivaji. Shivaji was defeated at Purandar Fort (near Pune) and had to sign a treaty, giving up a significant part of his kingdom. His son Sambhaji had to enter Mughal service.

Jai Singh persuaded Shivaji to visit the Mughal court at Agra, where he was made to stand before Aurangzeb and a Mughal general whom he had defeated earlier. Offended by this insult, Shivaji stormed out of the court, and Aurangzeb placed him under house arrest. To escape, Shivaji distributed gifts to holy men and Mughal generals. The gifts contained fruits and sweets in large baskets. The guards initially checked the baskets but soon stopped. Shivaji and his son Sambhaji hid themselves in the baskets and escaped. Aurangzeb never captured Shivaji again.

In 1674, Shivaji was crowned with Vedic rites at the Raigad mountain fortress. His formal title after the coronation was 'Shri Raja Shiva Chhatrapati', and he started his own era, the Rājyābhiṣheka shaka.

After this, Shivaji began a conquest of the South, called the dakșhina-digvijaya, which included the important region of present-day northern Tamil Nadu and parts of Karnataka. This southern expansion gave the Marathas strategic depth against future Mughal invasions.

Shivaji died of a fever at the age of fifty. He was a master strategist and visionary, and his achievements became legendary across India and beyond. Europeans compared him to ancient generals like Alexander. The Bundela prince Chhatrasal was inspired by Shivaji's struggle against the Mughals and created an independent kingdom of Bundelkhand (in present-day Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh). The Hindi poet Bhushan came to Maharashtra to meet Shivaji and wrote poems in his praise.

The Marathas after Shivaji

Shivaji had two sons: Sambhaji and Rajaram. After Shivaji's death, Sambhaji became the Chhatrapati. The Marathas were the only obstacle to total Mughal control of the Deccan. Aurangzeb invaded the Deccan and conquered the Bijapur (Adil Shahi) and Golconda (Qutb Shahi) Sultanates. He captured Sambhaji, tortured him, and executed him. Then, he captured Raigad, the Maratha capital.

After Sambhaji, Rajaram became the Chhatrapati and fled to Gingee (in present-day Tamil Nadu). The Mughal-Maratha conflict spread to south India. The Marathas defended their fortresses and often defeated the Mughals in battles. Aurangzeb could not leave the Deccan and died without subduing the Marathas, who became a strong contender to the Mughals. Led by Tarabai, Rajaram's queen, the Marathas made large-scale inroads into Mughal territories, eventually conquering large parts of India.

During this expansion, the Marathas underwent a structural transformation. The centralized state from Shivaji's time became more decentralized. The Chhatrapati remained the nominal head, but the chiefs had more power. The Peshwa (prime minister) had great influence, even over the Chhatrapati. Peshwa Bajirao I and his son Nanasaheb Peshwa were key to the pan-Indian expansion of the Marathas.

The Marathas controlled large parts of India and generally ruled them well. However, the increased power and autonomy of regional chiefs led to indiscipline and abuse, in contrast with Shivaji's values. For example, the Marathas' ten-year campaign in Bengal caused much cruelty and devastation.

In their northward expansion, the Marathas briefly controlled Lahore, Attock, and even Peshawar (in modern-day Pakistan). They fought with the Afghans, and despite a defeat at Panipat in 1761, they quickly recovered during the time of Peshwa Madhavrao I. Under the leadership of Mahadji Shinde (also known as Mahadji Scindia), they recaptured Delhi in 1771, which remained under their control until the British captured it three decades later.

In the latter half of the 18th century, the chief rivals of the British in India were the Marathas. Three Anglo-Maratha wars were fought between 1775 and 1818. Due to the Marathas' internal disunity and the superior organizational and technological abilities of the British, the British ended Maratha power. The British took India from the Marathas more than from the Mughals or any other power.

Maratha Administration

Civilian administration

Shivaji established a centralized administration for his kingdom. He abolished hereditary posts and land assignments and paid salaries to government officials from the state treasury. Many officials were periodically transferred to prevent them from gaining too much power.

Shivaji gave pensions to widows of soldiers who died in battles and offered military posts to their sons, showing his care for soldiers and their families.

Shivaji had an aṣhṭa pradhāna manḍala, a council of eight ministers, to assist him with administration.

The Marathas often levied taxes called chauth (25%) and sardeshmukhi (an additional 10% to chauth) from provinces not directly under their control, including places in the Deccan and north India. In return, the Marathas protected those provinces and did not interfere in their internal administration. The Mughals approved of this arrangement through treaties, and some of these provinces became part of the Maratha Empire.

Military administration

The Maratha armed forces were divided into infantry, cavalry, and navy. The cavalry consisted of bārgīrs, whose horses and equipment were paid for by the state, and shiledārs, whose horses and equipment were paid for by the soldiers. In the 18th century, the Marathas noticed the superiority of European-style disciplined troops and artillery and tried to recruit such troops. Mahadji Shinde had a large European-style army.

Swords and lances were the preferred weapons of the Marathas. However, they also used guns in sizable numbers. Rockets were used in military campaigns from the days of Shivaji, and by 1770, metal tube rockets were also being used.

Forts were essential to Maratha power. Shivaji controlled and built many forts, which were crucial for strategically controlling important routes and sheltering the army when engaging in guerrilla warfare.

Ramachandrapant Amatya, the finance minister of Shivaji, explained in his work Ādnyāpatra ('The Royal Edict') that "Forts are the core of the state. In their absence, the land gets devastated in the face of an invasion... This kingdom (Maratha kingdom) was created by the late great master [Shivaji] from forts alone... it was due to forts that the [Maratha] state survived despite decades of onslaught."

Maritime supremacy

Shivaji created a navy to secure the west coast. In the 18th century, Kanhoji Angre guided the Marathas to victory in many naval battles, using geography and battle tactics, even though the Maratha ships were not as technologically advanced as the European ones.

At the time, the main strength of Europeans in India was their navies. They forced Indians to purchase their naval trade passes (cartaz in Portuguese) at a price; any ship without a pass was confiscated. The Marathas challenged this practice and started demanding passes from the Europeans themselves, who labeled Kanhoji Angre a 'pirate'!

Judicial system

The Marathas had an efficient judicial system, notable for its moderation in using capital punishment (the death penalty). The panchāyat (a local gathering of officials and prominent men) was the main body that delivered justice. An appeal could be made to a Maratha chief if the verdict was unsatisfactory. Additionally, in prominent towns such as Pune and Indore, the kotwāl (police) was deployed to ensure law and order.

Trade networks

Shivaji encouraged trade and actively participated in maritime foreign trade. He and his officials had their own ships, which they regularly sent to ports as far away as Mocha in Yemen, Muscat in Oman, and Malacca in Malaysia. These ships carried cargo like gold and textiles.

Roads were constructed and maintained. In places such as Odisha in the 18th century, a network of ferries was maintained for riverine transport. Bridges were built over rivers and small streams.

Cultural Revival

The Marathas contributed substantially to India's cultural developments. Shivaji's vision of Swarājya is evident in his seal, which carried a Sanskrit inscription, a departure from the prevalent Persian seals: "This seal (i.e. authority) of Shivaji, the son of Shahji, waxing like the new moon, revered by the world, reigns for the welfare (of the people)."

Shivaji commissioned a treatise called Rājya-Vyavahāra-Koṣha to promote the Marathi language. It provided Sanskrit equivalents for Persian words used in diplomatic exchanges, reducing the use of foreign loanwords in Maratha diplomacy. Shivaji was a devout Hindu who respected other religions. His saffron-colored flag was adopted by all Marathas. He rebuilt desecrated temples, promoted Sanskrit and Marathi literature, religious institutions, and traditional arts.

He demonstrated that mighty kingdoms and empires could be defeated, and the Marathas could maintain, expand, and administer an empire of their own.

The mighty Maratha women

Tarabai was a fearless Maratha warrior queen who ruled in the early 18th century after the death of her husband Rajaram. Realizing that north India was unprotected due to the presence of Aurangzeb and the Mughal army in the Deccan, she organized large Maratha armies and sent them to invade Mughal territories in the north. She was the architect of the northward Maratha expansion. Her military strategy and tenacity outsmarted the Mughal Empire and preserved Maratha independence.

Ahilyabai Holkar was a scion of the Holkar dynasty, one of the chief families instrumental for the Maratha expansion in north India. In the 18th century, this dynasty ruled a kingdom in central India, around present-day Indore. Even after losing her husband and son, she bravely governed the state for thirty years, administering it wisely and caring for the common people. Ahilyabai was a devout person who built and restored hundreds of temples, ghats, wells, and roads throughout India, from Kedarnath in the north to Rameswaram in the south.

She rebuilt the Kashi Vishwanath temple in Varanasi that had been destroyed by Aurangzeb and the Somnath temple in Gujarat that had been destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni. Ahilyabai Holkar promoted the Maheshwar weaving industry in Madhya Pradesh, revitalizing traditional handloom crafts that continue to thrive today.

Shivaji's example continued to inspire his successors. The Bhonsles of Nagpur supported local culture and tradition, and the worship of the deity Jagannath at Puri (in Odisha), which was often interrupted during the Mughal rule, was revived with the support of the Marathas.

In focus: Thanjavur

Ekoji, the half-brother of Shivaji, conquered the Thanjavur region (in present-day Tamil Nadu) in the late 17th century, starting Maratha rule in the area. The Thanjavur Marathas helped create a syncretic culture that was rich and innovative. They were great patrons of the arts, and many of the rulers were poets and dramatists.

Of all the Thanjavur Maratha rulers, the contributions of Serfoji II are the most notable. He was well-versed in many Indian and European languages and wrote a Marathi play named Devendra Kuravanji, describing world geography as it was known at the time. Serfoji patronized talented musicians, and during his time, modern Carnatic music took shape, as did the early stages of the famous classical dance form of Bharatanatyam.

Serfoji was interested in medicine and established the Dhanwantari Mahal, a center of medicine that offered free treatment using both Indian and Western medicine. He started a printing press, the first such example in India by a native ruler. He had the history of the Bhonsle family inscribed on the walls of the Brihadishwara temple at Thanjavur, which is one of the largest single inscriptions in India.

The cultural environment of Thanjavur was multilingual, with a mix of Tamil, Telugu, and Marathi cultures interacting with each other.

The Maratha legacy

The Maratha rule challenged Mughal dominance and established the largest Indian empire before the British took over the Subcontinent, controlling much of central and northern India. They set up a new way of governing with an efficient administration and revived local Hindu traditions without religious discrimination. Their brave fight against oppressive rule and foreign power was driven by the ideal of Swarājya, inspiring many Indians to believe they could govern themselves, planting the seeds for India's freedom movement.