Chapter Notes

Universal Adult Franchise and India's Electoral System

Alladi Krishnaswami Ayyar, in November 1949 during the Constituent Assembly Debates, expressed great confidence in the common person and the success of democracy in India when the country adopted the principle of adult franchise. He noted that this was a bold experiment, unprecedented in world history.

Universal Adult Franchise

Universal adult franchise is a fundamental aspect of Indian democracy. Elections to the Lok Sabha (the lower house of Parliament), the legislative assemblies of every state and union territory, and local elections in villages and cities are all based on universal adult franchise, as stated in Article 326 of the Constitution. It's important to remember that no one can vote on behalf of someone else.

The makers of the Indian Constitution decided from the beginning that universal adult franchise would be a feature of Indian democracy. This means that every adult citizen has one vote, and all votes have equal value. Every Indian citizen aged 18 and above has the right to vote, regardless of caste, creed, race, religion, gender, education, or income. The word "universal" emphasizes this inclusivity.

In 1988, India changed the minimum voting age from 21 to 18.

To vote, you must be registered as a voter in your constituency, which is an area whose voters elect a representative to a legislative body. However, you cannot vote if you have been found guilty of committing certain serious crimes.

In the summer of 2024, India held a general election where about 980 million voters were eligible to vote for the 543 constituencies of the Lok Sabha.

India was among the first countries to grant women the right to vote, even before many other nations. For example, women in Switzerland were given the right to vote only in 1971. In many countries, women had to fight for this fundamental democratic right. However, in India, due to a progressive constitutional vision and deep democratic values, women had voting rights from the very beginning.

In 1947, when India gained independence, the literacy rate was about 14 percent, with only about 8 percent among women. Some people argued that the right to vote should be given only to literate people. However, the Constitution makers decided on universal franchise from the time of Independence itself.

Universal franchise is crucial because:

• It ensures equality among citizens.
• It empowers all adults to participate in the political process.
• It promotes social justice by giving a voice to marginalized communities.

Bridging Barriers, Enabling Participation: Ensuring Universal Franchise

Democracy thrives when every eligible citizen can freely and fairly participate in the electoral process. Voting in elections is a powerful way for people to express their will.

India is a large, diverse, and complex country. The population of eligible voters in India is fifteen times the population of the United Kingdom, and India is six times larger than France. Geographic diversity also presents a challenge. As a result, elections in India need to be organized with this complexity in mind.

The Election Commission of India (ECI) organizes elections in India. The ECI has taken several innovative measures to remove barriers to exercising the franchise and ensure no voter is left behind.

Electoral officials travel to remote locations to ensure every citizen can exercise their democratic right. In 2024, for the first time, the elderly and people with disabilities could cast their votes from home, and postal voting was available for a specific category of voters. Assistive technologies like braille-enabled voter cards and app-based requests for assistance, including wheelchairs and ramps, were also made possible.

These measures play a crucial role in a democracy by:

• Increasing voter participation.
• Ensuring inclusivity.
• Promoting equality.

About 34 percent of eligible voters did not vote in the 2024 elections.

Uttaramerur Inscriptions

The Uttaramerur inscriptions from the 10th century describe a transparent process for selecting representatives. Eligible candidates' names were written on fragments of palm leaves and placed in a sealed pot. On the selection day, the pot was opened publicly, and a young boy drew the palm leaves randomly. A respected individual would then read out each name of the selected candidates after showing their empty hands to the public.

Election for Class Representative - Grade 8, Suryodaya School

This section provides an example of an election for class representative to illustrate the key aspects of an election process.

Three students – Ahmed, Gurmat, and Ravi – decided to contest for the position. Ms. Usha, the class teacher, was appointed as the Election Officer to ensure the election process was fair, transparent, and followed all the necessary rules.

• Ahmed promised to improve the cleanliness of the classrooms and the playground.
• Gurmat was interested in helping all her classmates learn better and proposed creating a system of peer coaching and mutual support.
• Ravi wanted to make more space in their class timetable for the arts curriculum.

Ahmed put up posters, Gurmat used the noticeboard and spoke to classmates, while Ravi held a lunchtime music performance to promote his idea. Ms. Usha explained the rules to the class, ensuring everyone understood how the secret ballot voting process would work. She set up the voting booths in the corner of the classroom.

On election day, each student was given a ballot paper with the names of the three candidates. The students marked an 'X' next to the name of the candidate they wished to vote for. Ms. Usha also ensured there was a ballot paper in braille for Neha. After all the students voted, Ms. Usha collected the ballots in a box and sealed it until the counting session.

After all 33 votes were cast, Ms. Usha called Ms. Sheeba from the next class to witness the counting process. One of the ballot papers was not marked, so it was declared invalid. The results were announced: Ahmed received 8 votes, Gurmat 12, and Ravi 10. Gurmat, with the most votes, was declared the new Class Representative.

It was important to have a secret ballot to ensure privacy and fairness. Students might have considered the candidates' promises, their personalities, and their ability to represent the class.

After Gurmat was elected, the students have a responsibility to support her and participate in class activities. Ms. Usha's role was to ensure the election was fair and transparent. It was important for Ms. Usha to organize a braille ballot paper for Neha to ensure inclusivity.

If many students chose not to mark a preference, it could indicate dissatisfaction with the candidates.

The Role of the Election Commission of India (ECI)

India is a parliamentary democracy where citizens choose representatives for the Lok Sabha at the national level. Voters also elect representatives from their constituencies to the legislative assemblies in the state and union territories where they are registered.

The Election Commission of India (ECI) is an independent constitutional body responsible for conducting free and fair elections. It was established in 1950 and conducts elections to the Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, State Legislative Assemblies, and the offices of the President and Vice President. The first general elections in independent India were held in 1951-1952.

The ECI performs crucial tasks such as:

• Setting election dates.
• Registering political parties.
• Enforcing the Model Code of Conduct.
• Overseeing the entire electoral process.

Managing the Electoral Process

Managing elections in India is a massive task. The electoral system is massive and needs to work efficiently. The Lok Sabha elections serve as an example. Elections to the state assemblies follow a similar process. All elections take place at different times, but with some periodicity, so every year, several polls are conducted in various parts of the country based on when they are due.

Many people, including teachers, are deployed to assist the whole process.

84 of the Lok Sabha constituencies are reserved for persons from the scheduled castes, while 47 are reserved for scheduled tribes.

The process of voting for the Lok Sabha and State assemblies involves several steps:

1. The first polling officer checks the voter's name on the voter list and ID proof.
2. The second polling officer inks the voter's finger, gives them a chit, and takes their signature.
3. The third polling officer takes the chit and checks the voter's finger. The NOTA (None Of The Above) option is also available.
4. The voter presses a button to vote on the electronic voting machine (EVM) and hears a beep sound. They also check the printed slip in the Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT).

India's electronic voting machines (EVMs) and Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) systems have been used in countries like Namibia and Bhutan with support from the ECI. Other countries have also studied this technology and have received training from India to adopt it in their countries.

Model Code of Conduct (MCC)

The Model Code of Conduct (MCC) is followed to ensure free and fair elections. It lists the dos and don'ts for leaders, political parties, and candidates that must be followed.

A few elements of the code:

1. The party in government must follow rules to ensure that government resources are not used for the purpose of the elections. For example, no new schemes and projects are to be announced that may influence voters.
2. All candidates are expected to exercise discretion and restraint to ensure that the elections take place peacefully.
3. Influencing voters through gifts in return for votes is punishable.

T.N. Seshan became the Chief Election Commissioner in 1990. He brought in reforms to ensure free and fair elections, including precise rules for campaigning, voter IDs to eliminate proxy voting, and strict vigilance on spending by candidates.

Understanding Elections in India: A Very Brief Overview

Elections in India are often referred to as the 'Festival of Democracy' - a time when citizens exercise their right to choose representatives freely, fairly, and responsibly.

India follows a parliamentary system of government where citizens participate in elections at various levels:

• Lok Sabha (national level)
• State legislative assemblies (state level)
• Local bodies (city and village level)

The country is divided into 543 constituencies for the Lok Sabha elections. The elected candidates to the Lok Sabha are known as Members of Parliament (MPs), while candidates elected to state assemblies are known as Members of Legislative Assembly (MLAs). India uses the 'First-Past-the-Post' electoral system, wherein the candidate receiving the most votes in a constituency wins. This means that a candidate can win without securing even 50 percent of the total votes.

After the voting process is completed, the process of government formation begins. The political party or coalition (a group of two or more parties working together) winning a majority of the seats in the Lok Sabha forms the national government. The leader of this majority typically becomes the prime minister. Similarly, at the state level, the leader of the majority party becomes the chief minister.

The State Election Commission plays an important role not only in general and state elections but also in conducting elections to local bodies at the grassroots level. It works in consultation with the ECI in these matters, and universal adult franchise, and all other Constitutional provisions applicable in the case of direct elections by the people are pertinent here too.

Election to the Rajya Sabha

The candidates elected to the Rajya Sabha are also known as Members of Parliament (MPs), but they are chosen through indirect elections.

Of the 245 members of the Rajya Sabha, 233 are elected by the elected members of the state legislative assemblies (MLAs), while the President of India nominates 12. Each state is allotted a different number of Rajya Sabha seats based on population. More populous states like Uttar Pradesh have more seats than less populous states like Arunachal Pradesh.

The Rajya Sabha is also called the Permanent House because it is never dissolved (dissolution means expiry or termination due to the end of its term or other Constitutional reason). A member of the Rajya Sabha has a six-year term. One-third of its members retire every two years, and new members are elected.

The voting process uses a 'single transferable vote system,' which ensures that smaller states also get fair representation in the Rajya Sabha.

Election of the President of India

The President of India is not directly elected by the common people. Instead, an electoral college is formed to carry out the election. This Electoral College consists of:

• Members of Parliament (MPs) from both the houses of the Parliament – Lok Sabha (Lower House) and the Rajya Sabha (Upper House)
• Members of the Legislative Assemblies (MLAs) from each of India's states and the union territories of Delhi and Puducherry

The single transferable vote system is followed in this election to ensure the support of both the central and state governments.

The following group of people is not involved in electing the President of India:

• Nominated members of Rajya Sabha (12)
• Nominated members of State Legislative Assemblies
• Members of Legislative Councils (both elected and nominated) in bicameral legislatures (a system where the legislative body is divided into two separate chambers or houses)
• Nominated members of union territories of Delhi and Puducherry

Election of the Vice President of India

The Vice President of India is elected by an electoral college consisting of the elected and nominated members of both Houses of Parliament; again, the system of single transferable vote is used.

The vice president is the chairperson of the Rajya Sabha. If there are situations when the president cannot perform their function, the vice president steps in to play the role.

Challenges and The Road Ahead

India's electoral system is celebrated as the world's largest democratic exercise. However, it faces challenges such as:

• The growing influence of money in elections.
• A significant proportion of candidates with criminal records.
• Voter apathy, particularly in urban areas.

The way forward lies in empowering voters with the information they need to make thoughtful and responsible choices. Media, education, and awareness campaigns must work together to help people, especially the youth, understand the importance of voting wisely. An aware and vigilant voter is the strongest safeguard of a democratic system. It starts with asking the right questions and ends with casting a responsible vote.