Chapter Notes

Pastoral Nomads and their Movements

Nomadic pastoralists are people who do not live in one fixed place but move with their herds of animals to find pasture and earn their living. This chapter explores the lives of these communities in India and Africa, how colonial rule changed their world, and how they have adapted to modern society.

In the Mountains

In mountainous regions, the seasonal cycle of snow and sun dictates the movement of pastoral communities.

• The Gujjar Bakarwals of Jammu and Kashmir: This community of goat and sheep herders moves annually between summer and winter grazing grounds.

  • Winter: They live in the low hills of the Siwalik range, where dry scrub forests provide pasture for their herds when the high mountains are covered in snow.
  • Summer: By the end of April, they begin their northern march. Several households travel together in a group called a kafila. They cross the Pir Panjal passes into the Kashmir valley. As the snow melts, the mountainsides become lush with nutritious grasses for their animals.
  • Autumn: By the end of September, they begin their journey back down to their winter base in the Siwalik hills.

• The Gaddi Shepherds of Himachal Pradesh: The Gaddis follow a similar cycle of seasonal movement.

  • They spend their winters in the Siwalik hills and move north in April for the summer.
  • They spend the summer in Lahul and Spiti. When the high passes clear, many move to even higher mountain meadows.
  • By September, they begin their return journey, stopping in the villages of Lahul and Spiti to harvest their summer crops and sow their winter crops before descending to the Siwaliks.

• Other Himalayan Communities: In Garhwal and Kumaon, Gujjar cattle herders followed a similar pattern, moving from the dry forests of the bhabar in winter to the high meadows, or bugyals, in summer. Other communities like the Bhotiyas, Sherpas, and Kinnauris also practiced this cyclical movement.

On the Plateaus, Plains and Deserts

In other parts of India, the rhythm of life was not set by snow and cold, but by the alternation of the monsoon and the dry season.

• The Dhangars of Maharashtra: An important pastoral community, the Dhangars were mostly shepherds.

  • Monsoon: They stayed on the central plateau of Maharashtra, a semi-arid region where their flocks could graze.
  • October: After harvesting their bajra (a dry crop), they moved west towards the Konkan.
  • Konkan: Here, they were welcomed by farmers. Their flocks manured the fields after the kharif (autumn) harvest and fed on the leftover stubble, preparing the land for the rabi (spring) crop. In return, the Konkani peasants gave the Dhangars rice to take back to the plateau.
  • Return: With the start of the next monsoon, they left the wet coastal areas and returned to the dry plateau.

• Gollas, Kurumas, and Kurubas of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh:

  • The Gollas herded cattle, while the Kurumas and Kurubas reared sheep and goats and sold woven blankets.
  • They lived near the woods, cultivated small patches of land, and engaged in trade.
  • Their movement was dictated by the rains. In the dry season, they moved to coastal areas, and they moved back to the dry plateau when the monsoons arrived.

• The Banjaras: This well-known group of graziers could be found in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra. They moved over long distances, selling plough cattle and other goods to villagers in exchange for grain and fodder.

• The Raikas of Rajasthan: Living in the desert where rainfall is scarce and harvests are uncertain, the Raikas combined cultivation with pastoralism.

  • Monsoon: They stayed in their home villages where pasture was available.
  • October: When the grazing grounds dried up, they moved out in search of new pasture and water, returning again with the next monsoon.
  • One group, the Maru (desert) Raikas, herded camels, while another group reared sheep and goats.

Colonial Rule and Pastoral Life

Under British colonial rule, the lives of pastoralists changed dramatically for the worse. Their grazing lands shrank, their movements were restricted, and they were heavily taxed.

The colonial government introduced several new laws and policies that had a deep impact on pastoral communities:

1. Transforming Grazing Lands into Farms: The British wanted to increase land revenue, which was a major source of finance. They viewed all uncultivated land as "waste land" that was unproductive.

   • Waste Land Rules: Starting in the mid-nineteenth century, these rules allowed the colonial state to take over uncultivated lands and give them to select individuals to settle and farm.
   • Effect: These lands were often the traditional grazing tracts of pastoralists. As cultivation expanded, pastures disappeared, creating a serious problem for herders.

2. Restricting Access to Forests: The British enacted various Forest Acts to control forest resources, especially commercially valuable timber like deodar and sal.

   • 'Reserved' Forests: Pastoralists were completely banned from entering these forests.
   • 'Protected' Forests: Some customary grazing rights were granted, but movements were severely restricted. Pastoralists needed a permit to enter, and the timing of their entry and departure was strictly specified.
   • Effect: Pastoralists lost access to valuable forage. Their lives became ruled by permits, and they could be fined for overstaying, even if plenty of grass was available. The colonial officials believed grazing destroyed young trees.

3. Distrust of Nomadic Peoples: British officials were suspicious of mobile groups like pastoralists and traders. They wanted to rule over a settled population that was easy to identify and control.

   • Criminal Tribes Act (1871): By this Act, many communities of craftsmen, traders, and pastoralists were classified as Criminal Tribes. They were considered criminal by nature and birth.
   • Effect: These communities were forced to live in notified village settlements and were not allowed to move without a permit. The village police kept a constant watch on them, severely limiting their freedom and livelihood.

4. Imposing New Taxes: The colonial government looked for every possible way to increase its revenue.

   • Grazing Tax: A tax was imposed on every animal that pastoralists grazed on pastures. The tax per animal increased rapidly over time.
   • Collection: Initially, the right to collect the tax was auctioned to contractors who tried to extract as much money as possible. Later, the government began collecting the tax directly, issuing a pass to each herder that recorded the number of cattle and the tax paid.
   • Effect: Herding became more expensive, and the pastoralists were burdened with heavy taxes.

How Did these Changes Affect the Lives of Pastoralists?

These colonial measures created a crisis for pastoral communities.

• Shortage of Pastures: With grazing lands being turned into farms and forests being closed off, the available area for pasture declined sharply.
• Intensive Grazing: The remaining pasturelands were grazed continuously, which meant the quality of the grass and soil declined. The traditional practice of moving from one area to another, which allowed pastures to recover, was no longer possible.
• Deterioration of Animal Stock: The shortage of good forage led to underfed and weak cattle. During times of scarcity and famine, large numbers of animals died.

How Did the Pastoralists Cope with these Changes?

Pastoralists did not simply give up; they adapted to the new circumstances in various ways.

• Some reduced the number of cattle in their herds, as there wasn't enough pasture to feed large numbers.
• Others discovered new pastures when old grazing grounds became inaccessible. For example, after the partition of India in 1947, the Raikas could no longer go to Sindh (in Pakistan) to graze their camels, so they began migrating to Haryana.
• Richer pastoralists started buying land and settling down, giving up their nomadic life to become farmers or traders.
• Many poor pastoralists had to borrow money from moneylenders. When they couldn't repay, they lost their cattle and became labourers on fields or in small towns.

Pastoralism in Africa

Africa is home to over half of the world's pastoral population, with over 22 million people depending on this way of life. Communities like the Bedouins, Berbers, Maasai, Somali, Boran, and Turkana raise cattle, camels, goats, and sheep. Like in India, their lives were dramatically changed during the colonial period. We will look at the Maasai community as an example.

Where have the Grazing Lands Gone?

One of the biggest problems for the Maasai was the continuous loss of their grazing lands due to European colonialism.

• Division of Maasailand: Before colonial times, Maasai territory stretched from north Kenya to northern Tanzania. In 1885, European powers split this land in half with an international boundary between British Kenya and German Tanganyika (which later became Tanzania).
• Loss of Land: The best grazing lands were taken over for white settlement, and the Maasai were pushed into a small, arid zone with poor pastures and uncertain rainfall. They lost about 60 percent of their pre-colonial lands.
• Expansion of Cultivation: The British colonial government encouraged local peasant communities to expand farming, turning more pastureland into cultivated fields.
• Creation of Game Reserves: Large areas of traditional Maasai grazing land were turned into game reserves like the Maasai Mara and Serengeti National Park. Pastoralists were forbidden from entering these reserves to hunt or graze their herds.

The Borders are Closed

Colonial governments imposed severe restrictions on the mobility of African pastoralists.

• Special Reserves: The Maasai and other pastoral groups were forced to live within the confines of special reserves. They could not move out with their livestock without a special permit, which was difficult to obtain.
• Market Restrictions: In many areas, they were not allowed to enter markets in white areas or participate in any form of trade.
• Colonial Attitude: White settlers saw pastoralists as dangerous and savage, and tried to minimize all contact with them.

When Pastures Dry

Drought is a constant threat to pastoralists. Traditionally, their nomadic lifestyle was the key to survival—they could move their herds to areas where forage was available.

• Impact of Restrictions: From the colonial period, the Maasai were confined to a fixed area. They were cut off from their best grazing lands and trapped in a semi-arid region prone to frequent droughts.
• Cattle Deaths: Since they could no longer move to find pasture, large numbers of Maasai cattle died from starvation and disease during droughts. In just two years of severe drought, 1933 and 1934, over half the cattle in the Maasai Reserve died.

Not All were Equally Affected

The changes in the colonial period did not affect all Maasai people in the same way. It created new social divisions.

• Pre-colonial Society: Maasai society was traditionally divided into two main social categories: elders, who formed the ruling group, and warriors, who were younger men responsible for protecting the community and raiding other groups for cattle.
• Colonial Changes: The British appointed chiefs for different sub-groups of the Maasai. These chiefs were made responsible for the affairs of the tribe. This move undermined the traditional authority of both the elders and the warriors.
• A New Social Divide: The chiefs appointed by the colonial government often became wealthy. They had a regular income and could buy animals, goods, and land. They managed to survive droughts and famines because they had both pastoral and non-pastoral sources of income.
• In contrast, poor pastoralists who depended solely on their livestock lost everything during bad times. They had to look for work in towns, sometimes as charcoal burners or construction workers. This created a new distinction between the wealthy and the poor pastoralists.

Conclusion

Pastoral communities across the world have been deeply affected by the changes of the modern era. New laws, international borders, and the loss of grazing lands have restricted their movement and threatened their way of life. When mobility is limited, pastures deteriorate from overuse, and droughts become devastating crises.

However, pastoralists are not simply figures from the past. They have shown remarkable resilience by adapting to new times. They change their migration paths, adjust the size of their herds, and press governments for support and rights to manage natural resources. Today, there is a growing recognition that pastoral nomadism is a form of life perfectly suited to many of the world's hilly and dry regions.