Chapter Notes

The Age of Social Change

Following the French Revolution, powerful ideas of freedom and equality began to spread across Europe and Asia. Before this, society was rigidly divided into estates, with the aristocracy and the church holding all economic and social power. The revolution showed that this structure could be changed, sparking discussions about individual rights and who should control society.

However, not everyone in Europe wanted a complete and sudden transformation. This led to the emergence of three main political viewpoints: liberals, radicals, and conservatives.

Liberals, Radicals and Conservatives

These groups had very different ideas about how society should be run.

• Liberals:

  • Wanted a nation that tolerated all religions. At the time, many European states favored one church over others (like the Church of England in Britain).
  • Opposed the absolute, uncontrolled power of dynastic rulers.
  • Argued for an elected parliamentary government and an independent judiciary to protect individual rights.
  • They were not democrats. They did not believe in universal adult franchise (the right of every citizen to vote). They felt only men with property should vote and were against giving women the right to vote.

• Radicals:

  • Wanted a government based on the will of the majority of the country's population.
  • Supported women's suffragette movements (campaigns to give women the right to vote).
  • Opposed the special privileges of wealthy landowners and factory owners.
  • They were not against private property itself but disliked the concentration of wealth in the hands of a few people.

• Conservatives:

  • Initially, in the eighteenth century, they were opposed to almost any change.
  • After the French Revolution, they accepted that some change was necessary.
  • However, they believed that change should be slow and that the past must be respected. They were against the rapid, drastic changes proposed by liberals and radicals.

These conflicting ideas led to social and political turmoil throughout the nineteenth century as different groups attempted revolutions and national transformations.

Industrial Society and Social Change

The nineteenth century was a time of massive social and economic change driven by the Industrial Revolution. New cities, factories, and railways transformed the landscape and how people lived.

• Problems of Industrialisation:
  • Men, women, and children were brought to factories, often working very long hours for poor wages.
  • Unemployment was common, especially when demand for goods was low.
  • Rapidly growing towns faced severe housing and sanitation problems.

Liberals and radicals, many of whom were factory owners and employers themselves, searched for solutions. They believed in the value of individual effort and enterprise. They argued that if individuals were free, the poor could work, and those with capital could operate without restraint, society would develop. They believed the economy would thrive if the workforce was healthy and citizens were educated. Many working people who wanted change rallied around these liberal and radical groups.

Some liberals, radicals, and nationalists became revolutionaries, working to overthrow the monarchies established in Europe in 1815. Nationalists, like the Italian Giuseppe Mazzini, aimed to create 'nations' where all citizens had equal rights.

The Coming of Socialism to Europe

One of the most powerful new visions for society was socialism. By the mid-nineteenth century, it was a well-known set of ideas attracting widespread attention.

• Core Beliefs of Socialism:

  • Socialists were against private property, viewing it as the root of all social problems.
  • They argued that individuals who owned property (like factories) were concerned only with personal gain, not with the welfare of the workers who made their property productive.
  • Their solution: If society as a whole controlled property, collective social interests would be prioritized.

• Visions of a Socialist Future:

  • Cooperatives: Some socialists, like the English manufacturer Robert Owen, tried to build cooperative communities like New Harmony in Indiana (USA). In France, Louis Blanc argued that governments should encourage cooperatives to replace capitalist businesses.
  • Marxism: Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels offered a different view. Marx argued that industrial society was 'capitalist'. In this system, capitalists owned the factories and investment, while the profits were produced by workers. He believed workers could never improve their conditions as long as this profit was kept by private capitalists.
  • The Communist Society: Marx believed that to free themselves, workers had to overthrow capitalism and the rule of private property. This would lead to the creation of a communist society, where all property was socially controlled. He was convinced that this was the natural future for society.

Support for Socialism

By the 1870s, socialist ideas had spread across Europe.

• International Coordination: Socialists formed an international body called the Second International to coordinate their efforts.
• Workers' Associations: Workers in England and Germany formed associations to fight for better living and working conditions, demanding shorter hours and the right to vote.
• Political Parties: These associations led to the formation of political parties.
  • In Germany, they worked with the Social Democratic Party (SPD) and helped it win seats in parliament.
  • By 1905, socialists and trade unionists formed the Labour Party in Britain and a Socialist Party in France.

The Russian Revolution

While socialism struggled to take power in industrialised Europe, the situation was reversed in Russia, one of the least industrialised European states. Through the October Revolution of 1917, socialists took over the government. The fall of the monarchy in February 1917 and the events of October are together known as the Russian Revolution.

The Russian Empire in 1914

In 1914, Russia was a vast empire ruled by Tsar Nicholas II.

• Territory: It included modern-day Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, parts of Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, and the Central Asian states.
• Religion: The majority religion was Russian Orthodox Christianity, but the empire also included Catholics, Protestants, Muslims, and Buddhists.

Economy and Society

At the beginning of the twentieth century, Russia's economy and society were very different from the rest of Europe.

• A Largely Agrarian Society: About 85% of the population were agriculturists. This was much higher than in countries like France and Germany (40-50%).
• Industry in Pockets: Industry was concentrated in areas like St Petersburg and Moscow. Most production was done by craftsmen, but large factories existed. Industrial growth surged in the 1890s with the expansion of railways and foreign investment.
• Poor Working Conditions: Most industry was privately owned. The government set rules for minimum wages and limited work hours, but factory inspectors couldn't prevent them from being broken. Working days could be up to 15 hours, and workers lived in crowded rooms or dormitories.
• A Divided Workforce: Workers were divided by their skills and their links to the countryside. For example, metalworkers considered themselves "aristocrats" among other workers. Women made up 31% of the factory labour force by 1914 but were paid significantly less than men. Despite these divisions, workers did unite to strike over dismissals or poor conditions.
• Peasants and the Nobility: In the countryside, most land was cultivated by peasants, but large properties were owned by the nobility, the crown, and the Orthodox Church. Unlike in France, Russian peasants had no respect for the nobility. They believed the nobles' land should be given to them, and they frequently refused to pay rent and even murdered landlords.
• The Peasant Commune (Mir): Russian peasants were unique in Europe because they pooled their land together periodically. Their commune, or mir, divided the land among families based on their needs.

Socialism in Russia

Before 1914, all political parties in Russia were illegal.

• The Russian Social Democratic Workers Party was founded in 1898 by socialists who followed Marx's ideas. It operated illegally, organizing workers and strikes.
• Peasants as "Natural Socialists": Some Russian socialists believed that the peasant custom of the mir made them natural socialists. They argued peasants, not workers, would be the main force of the revolution. This group formed the Socialist Revolutionary Party in 1900, demanding that nobles' land be transferred to peasants.
• The Bolshevik-Menshevik Split: The Social Democrats disagreed with the Socialist Revolutionaries about the role of peasants. Vladimir Lenin argued that peasants were not a united group and couldn't be part of a socialist movement. The party itself split over strategy:
  • Bolsheviks: Led by Lenin, this group believed that in a repressive Tsarist state, the party should be disciplined and control its membership strictly.
  • Mensheviks: This group believed the party should be open to everyone, like in Germany.

A Turbulent Time: The 1905 Revolution

Russia was an autocracy, meaning the Tsar was not subject to a parliament. Liberals, Social Democrats, and Socialist Revolutionaries worked together during the 1905 Revolution to demand a constitution.

• Causes of the Revolution:
  • Economic Hardship: 1904 was a bad year for workers. Prices rose so quickly that real wages declined by 20%.
  • Industrial Action: When four members of a workers' assembly were dismissed at the Putilov Iron Works, over 110,000 workers in St Petersburg went on strike, demanding an eight-hour day, higher wages, and better working conditions.
• Bloody Sunday: A procession of workers, led by Father Gapon, marched to the Tsar's Winter Palace. They were attacked by police and Cossacks. Over 100 workers were killed and 300 wounded. This event, known as Bloody Sunday, triggered the 1905 Revolution.
• Aftermath of Bloody Sunday:
  • Strikes spread across the country, universities closed, and middle-class workers formed the Union of Unions, demanding a constituent assembly.
  • The Tsar allowed the creation of an elected consultative parliament, or Duma.
  • However, the Tsar did not want his power questioned. He dismissed the first Duma within 75 days and the second within three months. He then changed the voting laws to fill the third Duma with conservative politicians, keeping liberals and revolutionaries out.

The First World War and the Russian Empire

In 1914, World War I broke out. Russia joined France and Britain against Germany, Austria, and Turkey (the Central Powers).

• Initial Support Wanes: The war was initially popular, but support for Tsar Nicholas II faded as he refused to consult the main parties in the Duma. Anti-German sentiment was high; the city of St Petersburg was even renamed Petrograd. The Tsarina Alexandra's German origins and her reliance on a monk named Rasputin made the autocracy extremely unpopular.
• Military Defeats: Russia's armies suffered terrible losses against Germany and Austria between 1914 and 1916. By 1917, there were over 7 million casualties. As the army retreated, it destroyed crops and buildings, creating over 3 million refugees in Russia. Soldiers grew unwilling to fight such a war.
• Impact on the Home Front:
  • The war had a severe impact on industry. German control of the Baltic Sea cut Russia off from industrial suppliers.
  • Able-bodied men were sent to the war, leading to labour shortages and the shutdown of small workshops.
  • Large supplies of grain were sent to the army, causing severe food shortages in the cities. By the winter of 1916, riots at bread shops were common.

The February Revolution in Petrograd

By the winter of 1917, conditions in the capital, Petrograd, were grim. The city's layout reflected its social divisions: workers' quarters were on the right bank of the River Neva, while the fashionable areas, the Winter Palace, and official buildings were on the left bank.

• Events of the Revolution:
  1. 22 February: A lockout at a factory on the right bank.
  2. 23 February: Workers in fifty factories went on strike in sympathy. In many, women led the strikes. This day came to be called International Women's Day. Demonstrators crossed to the city center.
  3. 25 February: The government suspended the Duma.
  4. 27 February: The Police Headquarters were ransacked. The streets were filled with people demanding bread, better wages, and democracy. The government called out the cavalry, but they refused to fire on the demonstrators. Soldiers mutinied and joined the striking workers.
• The Formation of the Soviet: By that evening, soldiers and striking workers gathered in the same building as the Duma to form a 'soviet' or council. This was the Petrograd Soviet.
• The Tsar Abdicates: The next day, military commanders advised the Tsar to abdicate. He did so on 2 March. Soviet and Duma leaders formed a Provisional Government to run the country, with the promise of a future constituent assembly elected by universal adult suffrage.

After February

The Provisional Government was influential, but it had to share power with the soviets that were being set up across Russia.

• Lenin's Return and the 'April Theses': In April 1917, the Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin returned to Russia from exile. He immediately declared his opposition to the war and the Provisional Government. He put forward three key demands, known as his 'April Theses':
  1. The war must be brought to an end.
  2. Land must be transferred to the peasants.
  3. Banks must be nationalised. He also proposed renaming the Bolshevik Party the Communist Party.
• Growing Discontent: Initially, other Bolsheviks were surprised, but events over the summer changed their minds. The workers' movement spread, with factory committees questioning industrialists' authority. In the countryside, peasants, encouraged by Socialist Revolutionaries, began seizing land between July and September 1917.
• Government Crackdown: As the Provisional Government saw its power decline and Bolshevik influence grow, it took stern measures. It resisted workers' attempts to run factories and began arresting leaders. Popular demonstrations by the Bolsheviks in July 1917 were repressed, forcing many leaders to go into hiding.

The Revolution of October 1917

As the conflict between the Provisional Government and the Bolsheviks intensified, Lenin feared the government would establish a dictatorship. He began planning an uprising.

• The Seizure of Power:
  1. On 16 October 1917, Lenin persuaded the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolshevik Party to agree to a socialist seizure of power. A Military Revolutionary Committee, led by Leon Trotskii, was appointed to organize it.
  2. The uprising began on 24 October. The Prime Minister, Kerenskii, left the city to summon troops.
  3. In a swift response, the Military Revolutionary Committee ordered its supporters to seize government offices and arrest ministers. The ship Aurora shelled the Winter Palace.
  4. By nightfall, the city was under the committee's control, and the ministers had surrendered.
• Bolsheviks in Control: At a meeting of the All Russian Congress of Soviets, a majority approved the Bolshevik action. By December, after heavy fighting in Moscow, the Bolsheviks controlled the Moscow-Petrograd area.

What Changed after October?

The Bolsheviks immediately began to implement their socialist policies.

• Economic Changes:
  • In November 1917, most industry and banks were nationalised, meaning the government took over ownership and management.
  • Land was declared social property, and peasants were allowed to seize land from the nobility.
• Social Changes:
  • In cities, large houses were partitioned according to family needs.
  • The use of old aristocratic titles was banned.
  • New uniforms were designed for the army and officials, including the famous Soviet hat (budeonovka).
• Political Changes:
  • The Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik).
  • The Bolsheviks lost the elections to the Constituent Assembly in November 1917. In January 1918, Lenin dismissed the Assembly, arguing the All Russian Congress of Soviets was more democratic.
  • In March 1918, the Bolsheviks made peace with Germany at Brest Litovsk, ending Russia's involvement in World War I.
  • Russia became a one-party state. Trade unions were kept under party control.
  • A secret police force (first called the Cheka) was established to punish those who criticised the Bolsheviks.

The Civil War

The Bolshevik seizure of power led to a brutal civil war from 1918-1920.

• The Warring Factions:
  • The 'reds': The Bolsheviks.
  • The 'greens': Socialist Revolutionaries.
  • The 'whites': Pro-Tsarists, supported by foreign troops from France, America, Britain, and Japan, who were worried about the growth of socialism.
• Bolshevik Victory: The Bolsheviks controlled most of the former Russian empire by January 1920. They succeeded because the 'whites' took harsh steps against peasants who had seized land, causing them to lose popular support. Cooperation with non-Russian nationalities and Muslim jadidists also helped the Bolsheviks.
• Formation of the USSR: In December 1922, the Bolsheviks created the Soviet Union (USSR) from the former Russian empire. They granted political autonomy (the right to self-govern) to most non-Russian nationalities, but these attempts to win them over were only partly successful due to unpopular policies like the harsh discouragement of nomadism.

Making a Socialist Society

During the civil war, the Bolsheviks began to build a socialist society.

• Centralised Planning: A process of centralised planning was introduced. Officials set targets for the economy in Five Year Plans. The government fixed all prices to promote industrial growth.
• Economic Growth and its Costs: This led to rapid economic growth. Industrial production of oil, coal, and steel increased by 100% between 1929 and 1933. New factory cities like Magnitogorsk were built. However, this rapid construction led to poor working conditions and hard lives for workers.
• Social Welfare: An extended schooling system was developed. Crèches for the children of women workers were set up in factories, cheap public healthcare was provided, and model living quarters were built for workers. However, the effects were uneven because government resources were limited.

Stalinism and Collectivisation

The period of the early planned economy was linked to the disaster of agricultural collectivisation, led by Stalin, who headed the party after Lenin's death.

• The Grain Crisis: By 1927-1928, Soviet towns faced an acute grain shortage. The government fixed prices, but peasants refused to sell at those low prices. Stalin believed that rich peasants, or kulaks, were hoarding grain.
• Stalin's "Solution": Collectivisation:
  • The government argued that small peasant farms were too small to be modernised.
  • Starting in 1929, the Party forced all peasants to cultivate in collective farms (kolkhoz). The bulk of land and tools were transferred to the ownership of the collective.
• Resistance and Famine:
  • Enraged peasants resisted by destroying their livestock. Between 1929 and 1931, the number of cattle fell by one-third.
  • Those who resisted were severely punished; many were deported or exiled.
  • Despite collectivisation, production did not increase. The bad harvests of 1930-1933 led to one of the most devastating famines in Soviet history, in which over 4 million people died.
• The Great Terror: Many within the Communist Party criticised the confusion and consequences of collectivisation. Stalin and his supporters accused these critics of conspiring against socialism. By 1939, over 2 million people were in prisons or labour camps. A large number were forced to make false confessions under torture and were executed.

The Global Influence of the Russian Revolution and the USSR

The Russian Revolution had a profound impact on the world.

• Inspiration for Socialists: The possibility of a workers' state fired people's imaginations. Communist parties were formed in many countries, such as the Communist Party of Great Britain. The Bolsheviks encouraged colonial peoples to follow their experiment and founded the Comintern, an international union of pro-Bolshevik socialist parties.
• A Contradictory Legacy: By the 1950s, it was clear that the style of government in the USSR was not in keeping with the ideals of the revolution.
  • Successes: A backward country had become a great power. Its industries and agriculture had developed, and the poor were being fed.
  • Failures: It had denied essential freedoms to its citizens and carried out its development through repressive policies.
• Enduring Ideals: By the end of the twentieth century, the international reputation of the USSR as a socialist country had declined. However, it was recognized that socialist ideals still enjoyed respect among its people, and the ideas of socialism continued to be rethought and adapted in countries around the world.

The Age of Social Change

Following the French Revolution, powerful ideas of freedom and equality began to spread across Europe and Asia. Before the eighteenth century, European society was rigidly divided into estates, with the aristocracy and the church holding all economic and social power. The revolution showed that this structure could be dramatically changed. This led to widespread discussions about individual rights and who should control society.

However, not everyone in Europe wanted a complete and sudden transformation. People's responses varied widely, leading to the emergence of three main political groups: liberals, radicals, and conservatives. These terms had specific meanings in the context of the nineteenth century. The clash between these differing ideas would shape the political landscape and lead to many attempts at revolution, including the Russian Revolution, which made socialism a major global force in the twentieth century.

Liberals, Radicals and Conservatives

In the nineteenth century, political groups had very different ideas about how society should change.

• Liberals: This group wanted a nation that tolerated all religions. At the time, many European states favored one church over others (like the Church of England in Britain).

  • They opposed the absolute, uncontrolled power of dynastic rulers.
  • They argued for a representative, elected parliamentary government and an independent judiciary.
  • However, liberals were not "democrats." They did not believe in universal adult franchise (the right of every citizen to vote). They felt that only men of property should have the vote and were against giving women the right to vote.

• Radicals: In contrast, radicals wanted a government based on the will of the majority of the country's population.

  • Many supported women's suffragette movements (movements to give women the right to vote).
  • They opposed the special privileges of large landowners and wealthy factory owners.
  • While not against private property, they disliked the concentration of property in the hands of a few.

• Conservatives: This group was initially opposed to both liberals and radicals.

  • Before the French Revolution, conservatives were generally against the very idea of change.
  • By the nineteenth century, however, they accepted that some change was necessary but believed it should be a slow, gradual process that respected the past.

Industrial Society and Social Change

The political trends of the nineteenth century were happening during a time of major social and economic upheaval known as the Industrial Revolution. New cities emerged, industries developed, and railways expanded, changing the face of Europe.

Industrialisation created new problems:

• Poor Working Conditions: Men, women, and children were brought to factories, where working hours were long and wages were low.
• Unemployment: Joblessness was common, especially when demand for industrial goods was low.
• Urban Problems: As towns grew rapidly, housing and sanitation became serious issues for the working poor.

Liberals and radicals, many of whom were factory and property owners themselves, searched for solutions. Having made their wealth through enterprise, they believed in the value of individual effort. They argued that if the workforce was healthy, citizens were educated, and individuals were free to work and invest without restraint, society would develop and progress. As a result, many working people who desired change rallied around liberal and radical parties in the early nineteenth century.

Some of these groups, along with nationalists, became revolutionaries who worked to overthrow the monarchies established in Europe in 1815. Nationalists, like the Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Mazzini, aimed to create 'nations' where all citizens would have equal rights.

The Coming of Socialism to Europe

By the mid-nineteenth century, socialism had emerged as one of the most influential new visions for structuring society.

Core Ideas of Socialism:

• Opposition to Private Property: Socialists viewed private property as the root of all social problems. They argued that property owners were concerned only with personal gain, not the welfare of the workers who made their property productive.
• Collective Control: Socialists believed that if society as a whole, rather than individuals, controlled property, collective social interests would be prioritized.

Different Visions of a Socialist Future:

1. Cooperatives: Some socialists believed in the idea of cooperatives—associations where people produced goods together and divided profits based on the work done by members. Robert Owen, an English manufacturer, tried to build a cooperative community called New Harmony in Indiana, USA. Louis Blanc in France argued that governments should encourage cooperatives to replace capitalist businesses.
2. Communism (Marxist Ideas): Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels offered a different view. Marx argued that industrial society was "capitalist." In this system, capitalists owned the factories and investment capital, while the profit was produced by the workers. He believed that workers could never improve their condition as long as profit was accumulated by private capitalists.
   • Marx's solution was for workers to overthrow capitalism and the rule of private property.
   • He envisioned a communist society where all property was socially controlled. He was convinced that this was the natural society of the future and that workers would ultimately triumph over capitalists.

Support for Socialism

By the 1870s, socialist ideas had spread across Europe. Socialists formed an international organization, the Second International, to coordinate their activities.

Workers in England and Germany began forming associations to:

• Fight for better living and working conditions.
• Demand shorter working hours and the right to vote.
• Set up funds to help members during times of distress, like unemployment.

These associations led to the formation of political parties. In Germany, the Social Democratic Party (SPD) worked with unions and won parliamentary seats. By 1905, socialists and trade unionists formed the Labour Party in Britain and a Socialist Party in France.

The Russian Revolution

While socialism struggled to gain governmental power in industrialised Western Europe, the situation was reversed in Russia, one of the least industrialised European states. Through the October Revolution of 1917, socialists took control of the government. The series of events that year, beginning with the fall of the monarchy in February, is known as the Russian Revolution.

The Russian Empire in 1914

In 1914, Russia was a vast empire ruled by Tsar Nicholas II. Its territory included modern-day Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, parts of Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus, stretching across Asia to the Pacific. The majority religion was Russian Orthodox Christianity, but the empire was home to many other faiths, including Catholicism, Protestantism, Islam, and Buddhism.

Economy and Society

At the beginning of the twentieth century, Russia's economy and society were very different from the rest of Europe.

• An Agricultural Economy: About 85% of the Russian population earned their living from agriculture. This was much higher than in countries like France and Germany, where the figure was around 40-50%. Russia was a major exporter of grain.
• Pockets of Industry: Industry was concentrated in a few areas, mainly St Petersburg and Moscow. Large factories, many set up in the 1890s with foreign investment, existed alongside small craft workshops.
• Poor Conditions for Workers:
  • Most industry was privately owned. Government supervision to ensure minimum wages and limited hours was weak.
  • Working hours were long, often 10-12 hours in factories and up to 15 hours in workshops.
  • Workers were a divided group—some had strong ties to their home villages, while others were permanent city dwellers. They were also divided by skill.
  • Despite these divisions, workers did unite to strike over dismissals or poor work conditions.
• The Peasantry:
  • Peasants cultivated most of the land, but large estates were owned by the nobility, the crown, and the Orthodox Church.
  • Unlike in France, Russian peasants had no respect for the nobility. They wanted the nobles' land for themselves and often refused to pay rent or even murdered landlords.
  • A unique Russian custom was the commune, or mir, where peasants periodically pooled their land and the commune divided it according to the needs of individual families.

Socialism in Russia

Before 1914, all political parties in Russia were illegal.

• The Russian Social Democratic Workers Party was founded in 1898 by socialists who followed Karl Marx's ideas. It operated as an illegal organization, setting up a newspaper and organizing strikes.
• The Socialist Revolutionary Party was formed in 1900. This party focused on peasants' rights and believed that Russia's peasant custom of the mir made them "natural socialists." They argued that peasants, not workers, would be the main force of the revolution.

The Social Democratic Workers Party was itself divided over strategy:

• Bolsheviks: Led by Vladimir Lenin, this group believed that in a repressive society like Tsarist Russia, the party must be disciplined and control the number and quality of its members.
• Mensheviks: This group believed the party should be open to all, as it was in Germany.

A Turbulent Time: The 1905 Revolution

Russia was an autocracy, meaning the Tsar held absolute power and was not subject to a parliament. Liberals, Social Democrats, and Socialist Revolutionaries worked together with peasants and workers during the 1905 Revolution to demand a constitution.

Events leading to the revolution:

1. The year 1904 was terrible for Russian workers, with prices rising so fast that real wages fell by 20%.
2. After four members of a workers' assembly were dismissed at the Putilov Iron Works, over 110,000 workers in St Petersburg went on strike.
3. Bloody Sunday: A peaceful procession of workers, led by Father Gapon, marched to the Winter Palace to present a petition to the Tsar. They were attacked by police and Cossacks. Over 100 workers were killed.

This incident triggered the 1905 Revolution, which involved strikes all over the country, university walkouts, and the formation of unions by lawyers, doctors, and engineers, all demanding a constituent assembly.

Outcome of the Revolution:

• The Tsar allowed the creation of an elected consultative Parliament, or Duma.
• However, the Tsar did not want his authority questioned. He dismissed the first Duma within 75 days and the second within three months.
• He then changed the voting laws to ensure the third Duma was filled with conservative politicians, keeping liberals and revolutionaries out.

The First World War and the Russian Empire

In 1914, Russia entered the First World War alongside France and Britain against the Central Powers (Germany, Austria, and Turkey).

• Initially, the war was popular, and people rallied around Tsar Nicholas II. But support faded as the Tsar refused to consult the main parties in the Duma.
• Anti-German sentiment was strong; the city of St Petersburg was renamed Petrograd. The German origins of the Tsarina Alexandra and the influence of her advisor, a monk named Rasputin, made the autocracy deeply unpopular.
• Military Defeats: Russia suffered devastating losses on the eastern front. By 1917, there were over 7 million casualties. The army's "scorched earth" retreat destroyed crops and buildings, creating over 3 million refugees. Soldiers became demoralized and did not wish to continue fighting.
• Economic Impact: The war had a severe impact on Russia's industries. German control of the Baltic Sea cut off supplies. Railway lines began to break down, and labor shortages occurred as able-bodied men were sent to the front. Large amounts of grain were sent to feed the army, leading to bread and flour shortages in the cities. By the winter of 1916, riots at bread shops were common.

The February Revolution in Petrograd

In the winter of 1917, the situation in the capital, Petrograd, was critical. Severe frost, heavy snow, and food shortages were deeply felt in the workers' quarters.

The Main Events:

1. February 22: A lockout takes place at a factory on the right bank of the River Neva.
2. February 23: Workers from fifty factories go on strike in sympathy. In many factories, women led the strikes. This day came to be called International Women's Day.
3. February 25: The government suspends the Duma.
4. February 27: The Police Headquarters are ransacked. The streets fill with people demanding bread, better wages, and democracy. The government calls out the cavalry, but they refuse to fire on the demonstrators. Several regiments mutiny and join the striking workers.
5. By that evening, soldiers and striking workers formed a council, or soviet, in the same building where the Duma met. This became the Petrograd Soviet.

The Fall of the Tsar: The very next day, a delegation went to see the Tsar. His military commanders advised him to abdicate. Tsar Nicholas II abdicated on March 2.

Following the Tsar's abdication, leaders from the Duma and the Petrograd Soviet formed a Provisional Government to run the country until a constituent assembly could be elected.

After February

The Provisional Government, which included liberals and socialists, removed restrictions on public meetings and associations. Soviets, like the Petrograd Soviet, were set up everywhere.

In April 1917, the Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin returned to Russia from exile. He immediately declared his opposition to the war and the Provisional Government. He put forward three key demands, known as his 'April Theses':

1. The war must be brought to a close.
2. Land must be transferred to the peasants.
3. Banks must be nationalised.

He also urged the Bolshevik Party to rename itself the Communist Party.

Throughout the summer, the workers' movement grew, and Bolshevik influence increased. The Provisional Government, seeing its power weaken, began arresting leaders and repressing demonstrations. In the countryside, peasants, encouraged by the Socialist Revolutionaries, began seizing land between July and September.

The Revolution of October 1917

As the conflict between the Provisional Government and the Bolsheviks intensified, Lenin feared the government would establish a dictatorship. In September, he began planning an uprising.

• On October 16, 1917, Lenin persuaded the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolshevik Party to agree to a socialist seizure of power. A Military Revolutionary Committee, led by Leon Trotskii, was appointed to organize it.
• The uprising began on October 24. Pro-government troops tried to seize Bolshevik newspaper buildings and protect the Winter Palace.
• In response, the Military Revolutionary Committee ordered its supporters to seize government offices and arrest ministers. The warship Aurora shelled the Winter Palace.
• By nightfall, the city was under the committee's control, and the ministers had surrendered. The All Russian Congress of Soviets met and approved the Bolshevik action. By December, the Bolsheviks controlled the Moscow-Petrograd area.

What Changed after October?

The Bolsheviks moved quickly to implement their policies.

Immediate Changes:

• Nationalisation: Most industries and banks were nationalised in November 1917, meaning the government took over their ownership and management.
• Land Redistribution: Land was declared social property, and peasants were allowed to seize land from the nobility.
• Housing: In cities, large houses were partitioned according to family requirements.
• Social Equality: The use of old aristocratic titles was banned.
• New Symbols: New uniforms were designed for the army and officials, including the Soviet hat (budeonovka).

Political Changes:

• The Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik).
• In January 1918, Lenin dismissed the newly elected Constituent Assembly after it rejected Bolshevik measures.
• Russia became a one-party state.
• In March 1918, the Bolsheviks made peace with Germany at Brest Litovsk, ending Russia's involvement in World War I.
• The secret police (initially called the Cheka) was established to punish those who criticised the Bolsheviks.

The Civil War

The Bolshevik seizure of power led to a brutal civil war that lasted from 1918 to 1920.

• The Armies: The Bolsheviks were known as the 'reds'. They were opposed by the 'greens' (Socialist Revolutionaries) and the 'whites' (pro-Tsarists). The 'whites' were supported by foreign troops from France, Britain, America, and Japan, who were worried about the growth of socialism in Russia.
• Bolshevik Victory: The 'whites' lost popular support because they took harsh steps against peasants who had seized land. By January 1920, the Bolsheviks controlled most of the former Russian empire. Their success was partly due to cooperation with non-Russian nationalities and Muslim reformers (jadidists).
• Formation of the USSR: In December 1922, the Bolsheviks created the Soviet Union (USSR) from the territories of the former Russian empire.

Making a Socialist Society

During the civil war, the Bolsheviks kept industries and banks nationalised. They introduced a process of centralised planning, where officials set targets for the economy in Five Year Plans.

• Economic Growth: Centralised planning led to rapid industrial growth. Production of oil, coal, and steel doubled between 1929 and 1933. New factory cities were built.
• Poor Working Conditions: This rapid construction came at a cost. Working conditions were poor, and workers lived hard lives.
• Social Progress: The government also made positive social changes. An extended schooling system was developed, crèches were established in factories for the children of women workers, and cheap public health care was provided.

Stalinism and Collectivisation

The period of the early Planned Economy was linked to the disaster of agricultural collectivisation.

• Grain Crisis: By 1927-1928, Soviet towns faced a severe grain shortage. Stalin, who became leader of the party after Lenin's death, blamed wealthy peasants, known as kulaks, for hoarding grain to drive up prices.
• Collectivisation Programme: In 1929, Stalin's government launched a program to force all peasants to cultivate their land in collective farms (kolkhoz). The goal was to create large, modern, state-controlled farms.
• Peasant Resistance: Enraged peasants resisted by destroying their livestock. The number of cattle fell by one-third between 1929 and 1931. Those who resisted were severely punished, with many being deported or exiled.
• Famine: Despite collectivisation, agricultural production did not increase. The bad harvests of 1930-1933 led to one of the most devastating famines in Soviet history, in which over 4 million people died.
• The Great Purge: Stalin also dealt ruthlessly with any opposition within the Communist Party. He charged critics with conspiracy against socialism. By 1939, over 2 million people were in prisons or labour camps, and many talented professionals were executed after being forced to make false confessions.

The Global Influence of the Russian Revolution and the USSR

The Russian Revolution and the creation of the USSR had a profound impact on the world.

• The possibility of a "workers' state" fired the imagination of people globally. In many countries, communist parties were formed.
• The Bolsheviks founded the Comintern (an international union of pro-Bolshevik socialist parties) and encouraged colonial peoples to follow their revolutionary example.
• By the outbreak of the Second World War, the USSR had given socialism a global face and world stature.